bio

To provide a baseline for comparison and help determine the effect of the experimental variable.

The cell theory states that all living organisms are composed of cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and all cells come from pre-existing cells.

Proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.

Amino acids.

To provide energy for cellular processes.

Lipids are hydrophobic and make up the cell membrane.

To store and transmit genetic information.

Endocytosis.

Mitochondria.

Chloroplasts.

Interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.

S phase of interphase.

To divide the cell’s nucleus and ensure each daughter cell gets an identical set of chromosomes.

The cytoplasm divides, creating two separate daughter cells.

To synthesize proteins.

To synthesize proteins and lipids, and transport materials within the cell.

Proteins.

A double helix made up of nucleotides.

The movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane.

Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, while eukaryotic cells do.

To produce ATP through cellular respiration.

To modify, sort, and package proteins and lipids for transport.

To regulate what enters and leaves the cell, maintaining homeostasis.

Cellulose.

Chromatids are pulled apart toward opposite poles of the cell.

To break down waste materials and cellular debris.

To store water, nutrients, and waste products, and help maintain turgor pressure.

Spindle fibers help separate the chromosomes during cell division.

To produce gametes (sperm and egg cells) with half the number of chromosomes.

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the main energy carrier in cells. It is used to power many cellular processes.

To provide structural support, shape, and help with cell movement.

Diffusion is the passive movement of molecules from high to low concentration, while active transport requires energy to move molecules against their concentration gradient.

To store genetic material (DNA) and coordinate cell activities.

It is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

The passive movement of molecules across a membrane with the help of a transport protein.

Plant cells have a cell wall and chloroplasts, while animal cells do not.

Chlorophyll absorbs light energy, which is used to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.

To produce high-energy electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) that are used in the electron transport chain.

A cell that has the potential to differentiate into different types of specialized cells.

DNA stores genetic information, while RNA is involved in protein synthesis.

To synthesize lipids and detoxify harmful substances.

Cytosol, organelles, and inclusions.

Chromosomes condense, the nuclear membrane dissolves, and spindle fibers begin to form.

tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome according to the mRNA code during translation.

Centrioles help organize the spindle fibers that separate chromosomes.

Mitosis results in two identical diploid cells, while meiosis results in four genetically unique haploid cells.

The process by which cells engulf substances from the outside environment by forming vesicles.

The process by which cells release substances to the outside by vesicle fusion with the plasma membrane.

To break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances, such as hydrogen peroxide.

Glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.

Prokaryotic DNA is circular and located in the cytoplasm, while eukaryotic DNA is linear and located in the nucleus.

To produce ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and assemble ribosomes.

To provide structural support, protection, and help maintain shape.

To maintain the cell's resting potential by moving sodium ions out and potassium ions into the cell.

A lipid with a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails, forming the basic structure of the cell membrane.

It increases genetic diversity by exchanging genetic material between homologous chromosomes.

The phase where the cell grows and performs its normal functions before DNA replication.

Mitochondria convert glucose into ATP through cellular respiration, providing energy for the cell.

Haploid cells have one set of chromosomes (e.g., gametes), while diploid cells have two sets (e.g., somatic cells).

It regulates the movement of substances into and out of the cell, helping maintain a stable internal environment.

DNA is replicated to ensure each daughter cell has a complete set of chromosomes.

Enzymes work best within a specific pH range; deviations can affect their shape and function.

A segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein or function.

Anabolic reactions build molecules and require energy, while catabolic reactions break down molecules and release energy.

Heterotrophs obtain energy by consuming other organisms, while autotrophs produce their own energy through processes like photosynthesis.

ATP synthase is an enzyme that synthesizes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate during cellular respiration and photosynthesis.

A control mechanism that ensures the cell is ready to proceed to the next phase of the cycle.

It contains the proteins necessary for the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis.

A change in the DNA sequence that can affect gene function and may result in different traits or diseases.

Cyclins regulate the progression of the cell cycle by activating cyclin-dependent kinases.

A building block of DNA and RNA, consisting of a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

To create a semi-permeable barrier that separates the internal environment of the cell from the external environment.

Plant cell vacuoles are large and help maintain turgor pressure, while animal cells may have smaller vacuoles used for storage.

To direct the newly synthesized protein to the correct location within the cell or for secretion.

Programmed cell death, which helps remove damaged or unneeded cells.

To maintain the cell's shape, provide support, and facilitate movement of materials within the cell.

It involves two main stages: transcription (in the nucleus) and translation (on the ribosome).

To ensure that each daughter cell receives an identical copy of the genetic material during cell division.

The centromere holds sister chromatids together and is the point where spindle fibers attach during cell division.

To synthesize proteins and modify them by adding carbohydrates or lipids.

Telomeres protect the ends of chromosomes from deterioration and prevent the loss of important genetic information during cell division.

Channel proteins and carrier proteins.

To protect and separate the nucleus from the cytoplasm and regulate the passage of materials in and out of the nucleus.

To assist in the proper folding of other proteins, ensuring they attain their functional shape.

To detoxify drugs and harmful substances.

A sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid.

Anabolism builds larger molecules from smaller ones and requires energy, while catabolism breaks down molecules into smaller units and releases energy.

During G2, the cell checks for DNA errors and prepares for mitosis by synthesizing proteins and organelles.

To generate ATP by transferring electrons through a series of proteins in the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient.

Chromosomes that have the same structure, gene location, and pairing during meiosis, but may carry different versions (alleles) of the same gene.

Transcription is the process of copying DNA into RNA, while translation is the process of synthesizing proteins using the information carried by mRNA.

The cap protects mRNA from degradation and helps it bind to the ribosome, while the tail aids in the export of mRNA from the nucleus and stability.

A diploid cell has two sets of chromosomes, while a haploid cell has one set.

Helicase unwinds the DNA double helix to separate the strands, allowing replication to occur.

Primase synthesizes a short RNA primer that is required for DNA polymerase to start DNA replication.

Ribosomes are the sites where mRNA is translated into a specific sequence of amino acids to form proteins.

DNA and RNA are synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction, meaning new nucleotides are added to the 3' end of the strand.

To break down and degrade unneeded, damaged, or misfolded proteins within the cell.

A change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene, which can affect the function of the protein it encodes.

A point mutation involves a change in a single nucleotide, while a frameshift mutation involves the insertion or deletion of nucleotides, altering the reading frame.

To carry the genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome for protein synthesis.

Transcription factors are proteins that help regulate the transcription of specific genes by binding to DNA.

The pairing of homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis, allowing crossing over to occur.

To form the structural and functional components of the ribosome and aid in protein synthesis.

Aerobic respiration requires oxygen and produces more ATP, while anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen and produces less ATP.

ATP provides energy for cellular processes, including active transport, protein synthesis, and cell division.

The mitotic spindle is responsible for separating chromosomes during mitosis by attaching to centromeres and pulling chromatids toward opposite poles.

In plant cells, cytokinesis involves the formation of a cell plate that will become the new cell wall.

Mitotic checkpoints ensure the cell cycle progresses properly by checking for errors, such as incomplete DNA replication or chromosome misalignment.

The small ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA and ensures the correct reading frame during protein synthesis.

The large ribosomal subunit facilitates the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids during protein synthesis.

Translation is the process by which mRNA is decoded by ribosomes to assemble a specific sequence of amino acids into a protein.

Prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller (70S), while eukaryotic ribosomes are larger (80S).

mRNA (messenger RNA), tRNA (transfer RNA), and rRNA (ribosomal RNA).

The Y-shaped region where the DNA strands are separated and DNA replication occurs.

Topoisomerase relieves the tension in the DNA molecule by making temporary cuts to prevent supercoiling.

A small, circular piece of DNA found in prokaryotes that is separate from the chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently.

A region of DNA that signals the beginning of transcription and provides a binding site for RNA polymerase.

The template strand is used to synthesize RNA, while the coding strand has the same sequence as the RNA (except for thymine being replaced by uracil).

The 5' cap protects the mRNA from degradation and helps it bind to the ribosome for translation.

The poly-A tail protects the mRNA from degradation and aids in its export from the nucleus.

DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the growing DNA strand during replication, ensuring the correct sequence is copied.

DNA ligase joins the Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand during DNA replication.

A region of the genome that is more likely to undergo mutations due to its DNA sequence or structure.

A silent mutation does not change the protein, while a missense mutation changes the amino acid sequence of the protein.

The spindle apparatus helps align and separate chromosomes during meiosis, ensuring proper chromosome distribution to daughter cells.

In plant cells, cytokinesis involves the formation of a cell plate, while in animal cells, it involves the cleavage of the cell membrane.

It allows DNA polymerase to proofread and remove incorrect nucleotides during replication.

An operon is a cluster of genes regulated together, allowing coordinated control of related genes involved in processes like metabolism.

A preference for certain codons over others, even though they code for the same amino acid, which can affect protein expression levels.

The N-end rule determines the stability of a protein based on the identity of the amino acid at its N-terminus.

A frameshift mutation occurs when nucleotides are added or deleted, altering the reading frame and changing the entire amino acid sequence.

Exergonic reactions release energy, while endergonic reactions require energy input.

The proteasome degrades damaged, misfolded, or unneeded proteins that have been tagged with ubiquitin.

The rough ER synthesizes and processes proteins that are secreted from the cell, embedded in membranes, or sent to lysosomes.

Chromatin is a complex of DNA and proteins (mainly histones) that make up chromosomes in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.

Mitosis is cell division in eukaryotes that results in two genetically identical daughter cells, while binary fission is cell division in prokaryotes.

Telomerase adds repetitive nucleotide sequences to the ends of chromosomes (telomeres), preventing the loss of genetic material during DNA replication.

A chiasma is the point where homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material during meiosis, resulting in genetic recombination.

The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles.

The centrosome organizes the microtubules of the spindle apparatus and helps ensure correct chromosome segregation during mitosis.

Telomeres are repetitive sequences at the ends of chromosomes that protect the chromosome from degradation and prevent fusion with other chromosomes.

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can divide to form various specialized cell types or self-renew.

Somatic cells are diploid cells that make up most of the body, while gametes (sperm and egg cells) are haploid and involved in reproduction.

Molecular chaperones assist in the folding of newly synthesized proteins into their correct shapes, preventing misfolding and aggregation.

Epigenetic modifications are chemical changes to DNA or histones that affect gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence.

Euchromatin is loosely packed and accessible for transcription, while heterochromatin is tightly packed and generally inactive in transcription.

The 23rd pair of chromosomes determines biological sex—XX for females and XY for males.

PCR is a technique used to amplify a specific segment of DNA, creating millions of copies for analysis or experimentation.

Passive transport moves substances along the concentration gradient without energy, while active transport requires energy to move substances against the gradient.

A feedback loop is a biological mechanism where the output of a process regulates the process itself to maintain homeostasis.

Genetic recombination increases genetic diversity by exchanging genetic material between homologous chromosomes during crossing over.

DNA is double-stranded and stores genetic information, while RNA is single-stranded and is involved in protein synthesis.

RNA polymerase synthesizes RNA by using a DNA template during transcription.

DNA replication occurs during the S phase, ensuring that each daughter cell receives a complete set of chromosomes.

The lac operon regulates the breakdown of lactose, turning on genes involved in lactose metabolism when lactose is available.

A transcription factor is a protein that binds to DNA and helps initiate or regulate transcription by RNA polymerase.

Exons are coding regions of a gene that are expressed, while introns are non-coding regions that are removed during RNA splicing.

ATP provides the energy necessary to transport molecules against their concentration gradient in active transport.

The large ribosomal subunit is responsible for catalyzing the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids during translation.

mRNA carries the genetic information from DNA to the ribosome for protein synthesis.

A silent mutation is a change in the DNA sequence that does not alter the resulting protein due to redundancy in the genetic code.

A transposon is a DNA sequence that can change its position within the genome, sometimes causing mutations.

A codon chart is used to decode mRNA sequences and determine the corresponding amino acid for each codon during translation.

The nuclear pore complex regulates the passage of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

A haploid cell has one set of chromosomes, such as a gamete (sperm or egg cell).

A diploid cell has two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent, as in somatic cells.

Recombination increases genetic diversity by exchanging genetic material between homologous chromosomes.

The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for transport to their final destinations in the cell or for secretion.

Facilitated diffusion requires transport proteins to help molecules move across the membrane, while simple diffusion does not.

A point mutation is a change in a single nucleotide in the DNA sequence, which can affect the resulting protein.

Mitochondria release cytochrome c, which activates proteins that lead to cell death during apoptosis.

A gene is a segment of DNA that encodes a specific trait, while an allele is a variant form of a gene.

DNA methylation can silence genes by preventing transcription factors from binding to the gene promoter.

A dominant allele expresses its trait even when only one copy is present, while a recessive allele requires two copies to express its trait.

The rough ER synthesizes proteins and assists in their folding and modification before transport to the Golgi apparatus.

Vesicles transport proteins, lipids, and other molecules within and outside the cell by fusing with the plasma membrane or organelles.

Telomerase extends the telomeres at the ends of chromosomes to prevent DNA loss during cell division, especially in stem cells.

Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, while meiosis II separates sister chromatids.

Crossing over exchanges genetic material between homologous chromosomes, increasing genetic diversity in offspring.

Lysosomes contain enzymes that break down waste materials, cellular debris, and foreign substances.

Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotes have a nucleus and complex organelles.

The centrosome organizes microtubules and helps form the spindle apparatus, which is necessary for chromosome segregation.

rRNA is a key structural component of the ribosome and plays a role in catalyzing protein synthesis.

The p53 protein is a tumor suppressor that regulates the cell cycle and triggers apoptosis in response to DNA damage.

Cytokinesis in animal cells involves the formation of a cleavage furrow, which divides the cell into two daughter cells.

Cell cycle checkpoints monitor the progression of the cell cycle and ensure that errors, such as DNA damage, are corrected before division.

Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis, where light energy is converted into chemical energy stored in glucose.

A homozygous genotype has two identical alleles for a trait, while a heterozygous genotype has two different alleles for that trait.

The plasma membrane contains receptors that allow cells to receive signals and communicate with each other and their environment.

An operon is a group of genes that are regulated together and typically involved in the same metabolic pathway in prokaryotes.

A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid during translation.

A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein, while a chromosome is a long, coiled strand of DNA that contains many genes.

The cell wall provides structural support, protection, and helps maintain the shape of the plant cell.

Histone proteins help package DNA into a compact, organized structure called chromatin.

Ubiquitin tags damaged or unneeded proteins for degradation by the proteasome.

A locus is the specific location of a gene on a chromosome.

The 5' cap protects the mRNA from degradation and helps in the binding of mRNA to the ribosome during translation.

The proton gradient created by the electron transport chain is used by ATP synthase to produce ATP.