bio 3/4

Amino acid

A chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

A covalent bond is formed between monomers and a water molecule is eliminated

Breaking a bond by adding -H and -OH to separate molecules

The sequence of amino acids

The 3D form of local segments, such as alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets

The overall 3D shape of a protein that determines its function

More than one polypeptide chain in a single protein

A non-amino acid component bound to a protein to form a conjugated protein

To play specific roles in biological systems, influenced by their structure

All the proteins found in a cell

A chain of nucleic acids

Made of pentose sugar, nitrogen-containing base, and a phosphate group

Phosphate and pentose sugar bonded, with nucleotides adding to the 3' end

A bond between the pentose sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of another

A bond between complementary base pairs

Double-stranded, carries genetic information across generations

Single-stranded, present in most living organisms and viruses

Makes up 60% of the ribosome

Carries an expendable copy of a gene to the ribosome

Links mRNA with the correct amino acids

A section of DNA that carries the code to make a protein

The production of a gene product encoded by a gene

A sequence of 3 DNA nucleotides

A sequence of 3 mRNA nucleotides

More than one triplet can code for the same amino acid

All living organisms use the same codons to code for the same amino acids

coding region of a gene that is retained in the final, mature mRNA (messenger RNA) transcript after introns are removed during RNA splicinh

A non-coding region of DNA (in eukaryotes)

A binding site for DNA that indicates the direction of transcription

A binding site for repressor proteins

The process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template

The process of synthesizing proteins using mRNA as a template

The strand that guides RNA synthesis during transcription

The strand that has the same sequence as mRNA, except with thymine instead of uracil

An enzyme responsible for synthesizing RNA from a DNA template

A type of RNA that carries genetic instructions from DNA to the ribosome. expendable

Modifications that pre-mRNA undergoes to become mature mRNA

The removal of introns and joining of exons

The process of combining different exons to produce multiple proteins from one gene

Processes that control when and how much a gene is expressed

To conserve energy and prevent accumulation of unnecessary proteins

To ensure sufficient protein production for homeostasis and reproduction

Structural genes code for proteins; regulatory genes code for transcription factors

A cluster of linked genes transcribed together under a common promoter

A regulatory system that controls tryptophan production in bacteria

An essential amino acid required for protein synthesis

A mechanism that reduces operon expression when tryptophan levels are high -terminating hair pin loop

A repressor protein prevents transcription when tryptophan levels are high

Regulatory genes do not undergo conformational change, or an anti-terminator hairpin loop forms

Genes that code for proteins or non-coding RNA involved in the cell's function

Proteins that bind to genes or RNA polymerase to activate or repress transcription

mRNA is transcribed and sent to the rough ER

Ribosomes, made of rRNA and proteins, are attached to the rough ER to synthesize proteins

It synthesizes, modifies, and packages proteins into vesicles for transport

It further modifies proteins and packages them into secretory vesicles

The process by which vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane to release contents

A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed

A biological catalyst that speeds up biochemical reactions

The molecule that an enzyme acts upon during a biochemical reaction

The substance formed from an enzyme-catalyzed reaction

The specific region on an enzyme where the substrate binds and the reaction occurs

The ability of an enzyme to recognize and bind to a specific substrate

The amount of substrate available, which affects the rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions

The pH at which an enzyme functions most efficiently

The temperature at which an enzyme works most efficiently without denaturing

A state where all active sites of an enzyme are occupied by substrates

The amount of enzyme available for catalysis, which affects reaction rate

Interconnected chemical reactions within a cell, where one product becomes the substrate for the next

Factors such as enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, temperature, or pH that restrict the rate of reaction

When an enzyme's structure is disrupted, impairing its function

A site on an enzyme where coenzymes or inhibitors bind to regulate activity

When a substrate binds and induces a temporary conformational change in the enzyme's active site

Lock and key model and induced fit model

Reactions that can be catalyzed in both directions by the same or different enzymes

The energy required to start a chemical reaction

Non-protein organic molecules that assist enzymes in catalysis

Anabolic reactions require energy; catabolic reactions release energy

A coenzyme carrying energy for biochemical reactions

To genetically engineer organisms, perform DNA profiling, or study genes

An enzyme that cuts DNA or RNA at specific internal sites

A sequence that reads the same forwards and backwards

The ends of DNA fragments that can temporarily bind with complementary DNA

An enzyme that joins DNA or RNA strands by forming covalent bonds

An enzyme that synthesizes DNA or RNA strands by adding nucleotides

A type of endonuclease that cuts DNA at specific sequences

The complete set of genes in an organism

A natural defense mechanism in bacteria used to store information about viral DNA

An endonuclease used in CRISPR to cut DNA

A short DNA sequence used to mark target sites in CRISPR systems

Segments of viral DNA inserted between repeats in the CRISPR system

Guide RNA produced by spacers to direct Cas9 to the target DNA

Synthetic

amplifies small samples of DNA to make a sample large enough to be analyzed, in vitro

PCR reagents are mixed and heated to approx 95 degrees to break hydrogen bonds into separate DNA strands

mixture is called to 50-60 degrees for primers to bind to complementary single-strand templates

temperature increased to optimal 72 degrees. Polymerase extends primers by adding complementary nucleotides in a (5’-3’ direction)

Sample DNA, DNA primers, DNA polymerase, nucleotides, and buffer

short synthetic DNA pieces complementary to DNA template, 18-30 nucleotides, and there is a forward and reverse primer

ensures DNA polymerase can operate at optimal pH and Mg2+ (co-factor)

Small indentations in the agarose gel where DNA samples are loaded before electrophoresis. The DNA moves from the wells toward the positive electrode during the process

DNA fragments of known sizes used as a reference to estimate the size of unknown DNA fragments in a gel

A technique that uses gel electrophoresis to analyze an individual's DNA, commonly used in forensic investigations and paternity testing. It relies on comparing band patterns of STRs (short tandem repeats)

Repeating sequences of DNA that vary between individuals. STR analysis, often used in forensic DNA profiling, involves amplifying and separating these sequences via gel electrophoresis

Restriction enzymes cut DNA into different sized fragments, which are loaded into wells in the porous gel. A positive electrode is placed at the other end to the well and the electric current moves through the gel. Negatively charged DNA moves towards the positive electrode

Size and length (small = fast), Concentration/viscosity of gel (would make it overall slower/harder to pass), Voltage and power used (would make it overall faster if more voltage is used)

A gene or DNA fragment that has not been digested by restriction enzymes. It appears as a single, larger band on a gel

A gene that has been cut into smaller fragments by restriction enzymes. These fragments will appear as multiple bands on a gel during electrophoresis

Combines DNA from 2 different sources

Process by which foreign DNA is introduced into a cell

Plasmid with foreign DNA

DNA that has taken on the recombinant plasmid

A type of plasmid that carries DNA fragments to one organism from another without needing to reproduce. They self-replicate and are easily modified

Contains bacterial genome, 1 circular chromosome with the essential genes for survival and metabolism, passed to daughter cells

Small additional chromosomes that carry beneficial genes to break down chemicals or fight viruses

A short segment of DNA within a cloning vector that contains multiple unique restriction enzyme recognition sites

Simple organism that reproduces quickly, ethical

What is wanted to be inserted

Bacterial cells are exposed to cold + CaCl, then heated in a water bath (42 degrees). The increase in heat creates pores in the membrane for DNA to enter the cell

Isolate gene of interest and plasmid, recombination, transform, growth, and purification

Bacteria are grown on an antibacterial plate to kill off all the bacteria without the antibiotic-resistant plasmid

Results in genes being silenced, insertedemoved, or altered by replacing nucleotides (GMO)

Has genes from a different organism from a different species

Has genes from a different organism from the same species