Personality and ID

- Nomothetic vs idiographic (individuals are unique)
- Dispositional vs situational

Nomothetic and dispositional

Galen
- Phlegmatic - calm, relaxed
- Choleric - angry
- Sanguine - happy
- Melancholic - depressed

Eysenck
- Psychoticism
- Extraversion
- Neuroticism

Psychoticism implies link to psychosis. Better named psychopathy.

Reticulo-cortical system - moderates amount of electrical activity in cortex - extraverts have low cortical arousal so seek external stimulation

Limbic system - high neuroticism due to higher dopamine levels

Gray
- Behavioural Activation System and Behavioural Inhibition System
- Activation motivated by reward, inhibition focuses on avoiding harm and punishment

- Anxiety
- Impulsivity

(align with neuroticism and extraversion)

Fight/flight/freeze system, determines response to fear

All aspects of individual personality can be described from words used in language

Collated 4,500 words referring to personality, removing words relating to cognitive, physical or transient state

Strong correlations (positive or negative) show relatedness to a common latent factor

Correlated latent variables can reduce 7 items to 2 (strongest correlations). Where one item loads onto two different factors, the 2 are not independent.

- 4,500 terms grouped into synonyms and paired with antonyms, reduced to 171 total words
- Asked Ps to rate people and examined correlations
- Reduced to 16 factors

- Rarely replicated
- Arbitrary analysis
- Correlations between factors - not independent

Costa and McCrae
- OCEAN super traits (openness to experiences, agreeableness, conscientiousness)

- Factors derived from Cattell's arbitrary analysis
- Single words insufficient and can mean different things
- Simple correlations do not capture full complexity of relationships

Zuckerman - alternative big five
Lee and Ashton - HEXACO

Musek
- Comprised of Digman's alpha and beta factors
- Alpha - agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism
- Beta - extraversion and openness

Cronbach and Gleser
- Trade-off between breadth and accuracy of prediction
- Lower-level descriptors predict fewer but more accurate behaviours, higher level more behaviours but less accurate

Adorno
- Preference for routine
- Uncritical acceptance of authority and respect for institution
- Reluctance to introspection
Bouchard - heritability between twins
Amodio - decreased response on go/no-go

- Ability to find personality traits in non-clinical populations relating to psychosis

Mason et al.
- Factor analysis of measures of psychosis related symptoms
- Unusual experiences, cognitive disorganisation, introvertive anhedonia, impulsive nonconformity

Raine
- Items capture 9 features of schizotypal personality disorder

Steel et al. - name colour of ink
- Baseline control (crosses)
- Stroop (names of colours)
- Priming (distractor word predicts next ink colour)
Participants with high trait schizotypy showed small difference in Stroop and priming conditions

Paulhaus and Williams
- Psychopathy
- Narcissism
- Machiavellianism

Christie-Geis
- Likert scale
- Tactics, views and morality items to determine Machiavellianism

- Scale - measures one dimension of personality
- Inventory - several scales that measure multiple dimensions of personality

- Response set bias (acquiescence, nay saying, midpoint)
- Social desirability
- Faking

Christie and Geis
- Matched Mach and non-Mach items on social desirability
- Asked to rank Mach, equally socially desirable non-Mach and socially desirable buffer from most to least agreed

- Measures of trait-relevant 'spontaneous behaviours'
- Given tasks and participants behaviour measured and rated in terms of OCEAN

- Modification of IAT, words include self and others and conscientiousness
- Response quicket where 'self' paired congruently with level of conscientiousness

- One person rates anothers personality
- Relevance - availability - detection - utilisation

- Asymmetries in validity of self vs other knowledge
- Self more accurate than others for low observability, others more accurate when high in evaluativeness

- Describe ambiguous/meaningless stimuli (e.g., ink-blot test)
- Scored according to content and focus

Holmstrom, Silber and Karp
- Make up story about picture
- Asked to rate character on how they appear
- Correlated with PEN score

- Direct causation
- Correlational
- Causal chain
- Somatogenic (health --> personality)

- Type A - competitive, impatient, hostile, aggressive (increased risk of CVD)
- Type B - relaxed, uninterested in power, take life as it comes

- Conscientiousness, extraversion, openness - increased longevity
- Neuroticism - healthy AND unhealthy - can either be increased or reduced

- Low birth weight - lower E and O, higher N, A, C
- 'Dose-dependent' - decreased E, N, C and O

- Diathesis - high autonomy, dependency, self-critical, pessimistic
- Stressors - more reactive to divorce, bereavement, job loss, physical illness

Different personality types are more vulnerable to different types of stressors

- Positive - perceptual aberration and magical ideation
- Negative - physical and social anhedonia
- Each have their own specific vulnerabilities to schizophrenia

- Overinclusive thinkking - links illogically connected ideas
- When scored, comedians cored higher on 3/4 schizotypy subscales

- Cluster A - 'odd or eccentric' - e.g., schizoid
- Cluster B - 'dramatic, emotional or erratic' - e.g., antisocial personality
- Cluster C - ' anxious or fearful' - e.g., obsessive-compulsive

- Symptoms appear in therapy
- Hypnotherapy and such force patient to reinterpret experience

Watson and Tellegen
- Positive affect
- Negative affect

- Cultural influence - people feel happier on Fridays than on Mondays
- Peak-end theory - people recall their mood by the peak of the experience and the end
- Contemporaneous assessment - capture mood in the moment rather than retrospectively

Higher IQ = increased longevity
- Scottish Birth Cohort Studies
- Age 11 IQ Tests

- Employment prospects
- Health literacy
- Sub-optimal neural development - psychiatric problems

- High IQ predicts high likelihood of happiness
- Mediated by income, self-reported health etc.

McLelland
- Need for achievement
- Need for power
- Need for affiliation

- Hope for success vs fear of failure
- Poor leadership, entepreneurial success
- Preference for tasks of moderate difficulty

- Can reflect desire to have influence
- Teaching roles, larger families, greater parenting involvement
- Higher testosterone. sexual activity and aggression. Greater career success.

- Like similar others, dislike dissimilar others
- Peace and disarmament, more likely to concede in conflict

- Power - higher testosterone - more engagement in power-challenging situations - sympathetic nervous system activated more often - chronic high blood pressure
- Affiliation - parasympathetic functioning, higher immune functioning - increased longevity