International Organisations

20-25 million deaths

set out aims, created mandates commission and PICJ

self-determination, disarmament, end secret treaties and alliances, LON

US disliked imperialism, FR wanted harsh German punishment whilst GB didn't, Arabs wanted land and resources now that Ottoman empire was defeated

unanimous, a few scheduled meeting per year, first 4: FR GB IT JP, Germany joined in 1926 but left and was replaced by USSR in 1933

important decisions - majority vote, routine decisions - unanimous

permanent, led by Secretary General, admin

GB and FR only major powers on council, No USA - largest economy weakened collective security, losing powers not members at first eg. Germany - 'victors' club', mandates handed German colonies to its enemies, USSR rogue nation

1920, owned by Finland after it broke from Russia 1917, 95% Swedish, granted considerable autonomy with new law May 1920, 2 campaigners charged with high treason June 1920

Finland keep islands, Swedish lang and customs stay, islands demilitarised

1921, wanted by Germany and Poland - rich in coal and industrial resources, plebiscite - 54% in favour of Germany, Polish workers claimed they were forced to vote for Germany - uprising

2/3 to Germany, Poland got more economic resources, German-Polish cooperation commission

1923, 5 Italians murdered on Greek soil, Mussolini invaded Corfu in retaliation

Italy withdraw, Greece pay 50 million Lire compensation

1925, two Greek border guards killed, Greek invasion

withdrawal of all troops within 60 hours, Greece pay 30 million Bulgarian Lev compensation

large German populations in Western Poland and the Sudetenland, "off the record" talks to gain nations' confidence, needed after redrawing of Europe due to TOV

"off the record" talks unpopular with minorities, 16 out of 395 petitions accepted by League went to the council - only 4 resulted in anything, Germany, Italy and Spain had not signed minorities treaty

over 1 million POW to be repatriated, Fridtjof Nansen - High Commissioner

'Nansen Passports' accepted by 50 nations by 1929, helped 600,000 Nazi Germany refugees, arranged for 44 nations to take 1.5 million fleeing Russia, 36,000 Armenians resettled and employed

focus on opium and coca, led by Dr Rachel Crowdy

Opium Advisory Committee (OAC) - first categorising of drugs, 2 conventions on Opium, 1931 Drugs convention, non-members worked with OAC - US reported 50% fall in drug addiction 1930s

illegal drug trade hard to control - Persia produced even more to meet illegal demands

1932 World Disarmament Conference, Geneva Protocol 1924 - all signatories promised disarmament

divided colonies into 1 of 3 types based on how ready for independence

organised conferences and investigated people trafficking, defined slavery 1926

1920s Japanese army started losing confidence in gov - gov supported disarmament, Great Depression hit silk exports badly, industrial production fell by 30%

politically weak - areas run by warlords, Manchuria - farming, coal, iron, Japan controlled land around Manchurian railway

China went to LON - by time issue considered Japan taken Chinchow - Manchurian Administrative Capital, Japan promised withdrawal but took Shanghai in early 32 - China went back to LON, March 32 - Manchuria renamed 'Manchuko' - independent state occupied by Japanese army

Manchuria didn't want to become Manchuko, advised it became autonomous Chinese state and Japan withdraw, assembly voted in favour (42-1) - Japan left LON

Britain wanted good relations with Japan due to own interests in Far East, GB Foreign Secretary told cabinet that Japan had reason to make complaints about China

US didn't want strong action, smaller nations like Finland demanded action

1937 - Japan launched full-scale invasion of China - military dictatorship

LON weak, return to traditional diplomacy

no sanctions, 1 year for Lytton to issue its report

30 Italians and 90 Abyssinians died at Wal-Wal in a border dispute - Mussolini invaded

prevented arms sales, limited credit to Italian gov and firms, embargo on oil sales - just traded with US, sanctions stopped once defeated

GB and FR reluctant to be harsh - maintain balance of power in Europe against Germany - Mussolini possible ally

GB and FR promoting imperialism, GB and FR used secret talks with IT - met at Stresa to discuss Germany

107 between 1929 and 1939

rise of extreme politics - dictatorships in Japan and Germany came to power, fewer sanctions

1932-34, included non-members eg US and USSR, Japan and Germany left during this time, difficulty deciding which weapons were defensive and offensive

had been effectively signed up to in TOV - Germany left LON in 1933

no air force, 100,000 men, conscription banned - rearmed, announced Luftwaffe and conscription 1935

demilitarised - remilitarised 1936

annexation forbidden - unified with Germany 1938

redrawn to contribute to creation of Czechoslovakia - took Sudetenland 1938 and rest of Czechoslovakia 1939

well-armed Germany - buffer to stop communism spreading

diplomacy conducted outside LON - 1935 Anglo-German Naval Treaty signed by both - Hitler could have navy smaller than GB

when he claimed it GB FR and IT negotiated directly and gave him what he wanted

umbrella organisation for other committee's work involving children eg. health and slavery and some non-leage groups eg. International Save the Children Fund (ISCF)

reports with good quality data, looked into juvenile crime, ideas and approaches later used by UNICEF, Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child - children have different rights to adults - signed by countries

issues like sex education and contraception seen as national, countries didn't always keep to Geneva Declaration

best way - outlaw in every country, transport of slaves at sea considered piracy, European and Egyptian ships allowed to pursue slave ships into countries' own territorial waters

1929 convention ratified by 30 govs, end to slavery in Nepal 1926 and Burma 1928, Liberian gov asked LON to investigate slavery 1930 - led to reforms abolishing it there, made abolition of slavery a precondition of Arab nations joining it

found hundreds of girls (mostly 14-16) being trafficked into prostitution

looked at cause rather than blaming prostitutes - 1927 report on how trade worked, 1937 conference in Java got several countries to raise ages of marriage and consent and abolish legal brothels, 1921 conference raised age at which women could agree to be trafficked to 21

not all countries who signed convention made it a crime, didn't protect women who agreed to be prostitutes or were trafficked within own country

final act - expel USSR after invasion of Finland

June 1945, 50 countries signed charter - more in following years, defeated powers joined later - Italy 55, Japan 56, West/East Germany 73

elected every 5 years, bring threats to attention of security council

54 members elected for 3 year terms, oversee sustainable development, human rights and UN 5 regional development commissions

like LON mandates commission, not used since Palau gained independence in 1994, oversaw nations on path to independence

15 judges elected for 9 year terms, once a country takes a case to the ICJ it must accept the decision made

recommendations on peace and security need a 2/3 majority to pass

15 nations with p5, non-permanent elected for 2 year terms, set distribution - 2 from Africa and 1 from Eastern Europe

blue helmets, 2016 over 95,000 personnel from over 120 different countries

majority of 9 out of 15, issues of international security - simple majority enough if p5 in favour

US and USSR members from start, all major powers in general assembly

no Latin American, African or Middle Eastern countries, same since 1945, Brazil and India potential new superpowers

114 USSR and 96 US vetoes between 1946-91, 13 peacekeeping missions until 1985, 36 between 1988-2015

1949, nationalists retreated to Taiwan but kept permanent seat, only replaced by People's Republic of China 1971

75 vetoes between 1946-55 - majority against new members - felt assembly was too aligned with the west

increase in membership from newly independent countries in Sub-Sahara and Asia - changed balance of power in assembly but not reflected in policies and actions due to security council

security council decisions must be taken even if majority of general assembly disagrees - in issues of international security P5 must agre

Article 2 - all members must contribute, initially UN would have own forces but cold war made cooperation impossible, usually arrive after conflict has started, disband when missions are complete

1948 UN Declaration of Human Rights - non binding but some still abstained from signing, 1990s genocides in Bosnia and Rwanda - 2005 UN World Summit - international community must take action when a gov is failing to protect its people

1947-49

Jews expelled in 70CE, became Arab Muslim land and part of Ottoman empire, handed over to GB by LON mandate, 1945 - increased pressure for GB to take 100,000 Jews there - refused, Jewish terrorist campaign in Palestine, 1947 GB asked UN to intervene and left in 1948

Arabs said it contradicted UN charter's principle of self-determination

1948, Arabs attacked the next day

ceasefire call and mediator assisted by military observers - mediator murdered, resolution 194

refugees could return / compensation, Jerusalem demilitarised

1 million Arab refugees, Israel joined UN, UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees (UNRWA) began work shortly after - still ongoing

1st UN involvement in international dispute, 1st peacekeeping force established, resolutions passed without veto but unsuccessful outcomes

1950-53

liberated from Japanese rule post-WWII by USSR north of 38th parallel and US south, South had American ally leader, 1950 - North invades South

resolutions ordering withdrawal and UN forces sent to South - only possible due to USSR boycotting UN over Taiwan

wanted new UN objective - destroy communists and reunify Korea

USSR returned to UN in August 1950, October - China entered war, USSR vetoed resolutions calling for Chinese withdrawal

Korea, used by US to get around USSR veto, enabled assembly to hold emergency meeting on behalf of council if it failed to fulfil its function and 7 members of security council requested it

UN forces pushed south of 38th parallel - objective remained restoring boundaries, UN mediators negotiated armistice

1st time forces deployed to a country to restore peace, cooperation could work without veto - 16 nations took part on South Korean side, some saw UN as tool of US foreign policy

1960-64

Belgian colony, independence with 6 months' notice, thousands of Belgians stayed - still no black officers in the army, new and inexperienced gov

Patrice Lumumba - PM, Jospeph Kasavubu - president

army mutinied against Belgian officers and new gov, attacks against white people - Belgium sent troops

Local leader Moise Tshombe declared independence for resource-rich province, Lumumba and Kasavubu asked UN to intervene

DELETE

Lumumba and Kasavubu dismissed each other, Mobutu Sese Seko - leader of army - staged military coup - later supported by Kasavubu, Lumumba captured by Tshombe's men and killed

Tshombe - supported by Belgian troops, Mobutu Sese Seko - supported by Kasavubu, Lumumba's forces - supported by USSR

UN offensive, get rid of mercenaries in Congo especially Katanga, refused to back down despite criticism and Secretary-General being killed in a plane crash, by late 1962 - all mercenaries left Katanga and Tshombe left Congo

1965 - conflict back

largest ever UN involvement - 20,000 personnel, 1st intervention in internal affairs, Operation Rumpunch authorised violence

1967

tensions high after war in 40s, PLO formed - border raids and supported by all Arab states, USSR strengthened ties with Egypt and US backed Israel

April - Arabs started building up forces on Israeli border, May - Colonel Nasser closed Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, June - Israel launched air attack on Egypt - destroyed 400 Arab aircraft

UN Emergency Force (UNEFI) was peacekeeping in Egypt but was asked by Nasser to withdraw, U Thant tried to use diplomacy

first 3 ignored by Israel, 4th accepted after Arab states defeated and Israel gained 70,000 km$^2

DELETE

6 day war, Israeli forces withdraw from territory taken in recent conflict, all states in region to accept each others' borders, 'just' settlement of refugee problem

rejected - didn't give them right to return to land owned before formation of Israel, UNRWA opened 10 more camps for Palestinian refugees

said it would negotiate separately with Arabs - not possible - they had agreed to no negotiations with Israel

president Nasser would only accept if Israel withdrew from new territories - they refused

1973

Egyptian president Anwar Sadat led Arabs in surprise attack - but Egypt defeated in 3 weeks

Yom Kippur, end to hostilities, Sadat agreed but Israel ignored

Yom Kippur, ceasefire, accepted - USSR threatening to send troops and Arabs had stopped selling oil to US, US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger negotiated ceasefire deals

2nd emergency force, established by resolution 340, oversee disengagement and supervise a buffer zone, Kissinger achieved the disengagement agreements

set as code for all following peacekeeping operations - deployment only with consent of all parties, force only in self defence, neutral, all members must contribute

1975-85

founded as Christian nation post WWI, many Palestinian refugees arrived 1948 and early 70s, by 70s Muslim majority and Christian large minority but Christians had more seats in parliament, Muslim and Christian militia groups

terrorism and guerrilla warfare

arrived in 1973 after having to leave Jordan, around 10% Lebanese population Palestinian - mostly in refugee camps, attacked Israel targets from Lebanon

Syria invaded to restore peace and hold back PLO - feared it would get drawn into another war, Arab League - 30,000 strong Deterrent Force with mainly Syrian troops - Lebanon protested but was ignored

invaded 1978, alliance with South Lebanese Army (SLA) - Christian militia group, Lebanon protested to UN

Lebanon, 425 - Israeli withdrawal, 426 - UNIFIL established

resolution 426, confirm withdrawal of Israeli forces, restore peace, help Lebanese gov restore order over Lebanon

gave territory to SLA instead of UNIFIL, SLA attack on UNIFIL killed 8 UN personnel, UNIFIL stayed there but role limited to humanitarian and protection in some areas

continued attacking - started shelling 1979, Israel accused UN of being sympathetic towards them

June 1982, ignored UNIFIL and reached Beirut - UNIFIL stuck behind Israeli lines

turned to multinational force led by US, 1984 - US withdrew troops after several attacks against them

war increasingly unpopular with Israelis, severe economic problems, more moderate ministers from a range of political parties elected 1984

believed it was pro-Palestinian, Secretary General tried to persuade it to withdraw but it refused

lost - white phosphorus shells used - outlawed by UN

Israel created 15km wide security zone Southern Lebanon, controlled by Israel and SLA, buffer to protect from terrorism

1966

occupied South-West Africa under LON mandate since 1920, UN wanted South West independence post WWII, under apartheid - hadn't signed UN Declaration of Human Rights

South West African People's Organisation, created 1960, fought for independence, recognised by UN as legitimate representative of Namibian people, turned to armed conflict after South Africa ignored a UN order to withdraw 1966

general assembly wanted sanctions, US and GB vetoed - cold war ally, sanctions would hit the poorest (black population)

civil war - one side backed by USSR and Cuba and the other backed by USA and South Africa, sanctioned South Africa wouldn't be able to fund, country used as SWAPO base for guerrilla warfare - South Africa attacked Angola

South African Defence Forces, deal with SWAPO, used violence intimidation and torture, thousands of Namibians fled to bordering states

Javier Pérez de Cuéllar got South Africa to agree to ceasefire in 1989 - had not cooperated with UN before

elections in Namibia, South African cooperation with UN, Cuba withdraw troops from Angola

USA had less need for South African ally, USSR stopping support for oversees communist parties in Cuba and Angola

many nations imposed sanctions - angry over apartheid, UN had not made compulsory

New President F.W. de Klerk began bringing in reforms to end apartheid

increasing South African casualties in Namibia, Forces needed for instability in own country

UN Transition Assistance Group, oversaw Namibian independence

disarm SADF and SWAPO, monitor SADF withdrawal, disarm 32,500 soldiers from Namibian armed units

amnesty for all Namibian refugees

enforced law whilst it trained new Namibian police force, ensured free and fair elections and free speech

UNCIVPOL used twice before but never on such a large scale, UNCIVPOL became important part of many 90s operations like Mozambique, UN aims changing - peace building not just peacekeeping

fighting broke out in late March 1989 - took until 26 April for situation to be under control, had not been enough UN troops when ceasefire began

elections had 97% turnout - SWAPO leader Sam Nujoma, Namibia declared independent on 21 March 1990

1991

18 peacekeeping missions from 1946-89, 48 from 1989-2011

Boutros-Ghali, 1992, disarm fighting factions, protect human rights, monitor elections

created in 1992, separate Department of Peacekeeping Operations

2 genocides in 90s - Bosnia and Rwanda, 1998 Kofi Annan speech - UN should intervene in HR issues within nations

agreed at 2005 UN World Summit, if a country fails to protect its people from breach of human rights UN must take action

1991

Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait

resolution 660 passed within hours - immediate withdrawal, UN kept passing resolutions that were ignored, embargoes on purchase of oil and sale of arms

1st gulf war, member states could attack Iraq if it didn't withdraw - Operation Desert Storm launched

US-led coalition, many Arab states involved, within 4 days of 1st ground attack Iraq accepted all UN resolutions

678 set pattern for UN military interventions - security council set out basic aims but left other decisions to military leaders, 688 saw HR as a threat to international peace not just a domestic matter

UN Iraq-Kuwait Observer Mission, monitor and protect demilitarised zone along border - more confident approach

banned weapons found, Iraq thought to be developing WMDs, Iraqi gov tried to intervene with inspections - UN imposed harsh sanctions

little difference to gov - est 500,000 children died, security council divided - FR and Russia called for an end but GB and USA refused

2003

after 9/11 George W Bush asked security council to support use of force to disarm Iraq - said it would soon have WMDs, FR Russia and Germany vetoed - US GB and a few others invaded anyway

Saddam overthrown in April 2003, US and GB found dealing with Iraq after too difficult to manage alone, no WMDs ever found

2nd gulf war, accepted GB and US as occupying powers, set up UN Assistance Mission to Iraq (UNAMI) to help rebuild Iraq

6 republics, broke up in 90s

1991-95

Slovenia Croatia and Macedonia declared independence in 1991, Serbian president Slobodan Milosevic sent in Yugoslav army to Slovenia - army defeated in 10 days, army then sent to Croatia

held conference about restoring peace in the region - supported by UN

UN Protective Force, humanitarian, monitor ceasefire and withdrawal of Yugoslav forces, create and demilitarise UN protected areas, restore Croatian authority in 'pink zones' - areas run by Yugoslav army

more trad peacekeeping, 'pink zones' remained, demilitarisation unsuccessful - Yugoslav army left weapons for Croatian Serbs when it withdrew

1993, talks run by EU and UN restored it

1995, Croatia launched attacks against the Serbs - around 200,000 Serbs fled Croatia

peace deal signed in Dayton Ohio, US secretary of state led negotiations, US wanted minimal UN involvement due to its low popularity

1998-99

declared itself an autonomous republic within Yugoslavia 1990, demanded full independence when Yugoslavia broke up

Kosovo Liberation Army carried out attacks on Serbian targets, Serbia attacked Kosovar villages and killed dozens in response

US and NATO demanded Serbian withdrawal, 1991 NATO air attacks against Belgrade - Milosevic gave in

USSR was a Serbian ally so would veto

UN Mission in Kosovo, set up after NATO forced Milosevic acceptance, deal with HR issues - mass deportations of Kosovar Albanians into Macedonia, take over admin in Kosovo until Kosovar gov able to take over

1991-95

Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims), Serbs, Croats

1992, independence - large majority of Bosniaks and Croats in favour

Bosnia attacked by Bosnian-Serb units of Yugoslav army, by late 1992 - Sarajevo besieged and 70% Bosnia controlled

non-Serbs sent to prison camps - Bosnian Muslims targeted worst

murder, torture, rape, castration and mass execution

sent in June 1992, protect Sarajevo airport and convoys of food and medicine, humanitarian

allowed to shoot past not at Serbs, usually just plead with them - seen as weak

declared oct 1992, NATO needed UN permission before shooting down unauthorised aircraft, UN didn't want to give permission incase angry Serbs attacked UN personnel

thousands of Muslims had fled to Srebrenica, Serb attacks on the town stopped UN food delivery, town declared 'safe area' and small group of peacekeepers sent, 5 more safe areas created

over 30,000 peacekeepers required - security council agreed to 7,600, shelling and sniper attacks on Sarajevo continued, less violence and fewer casualties in safe areas, one attack on Sarajevo market killed 68

Serbs threatened safe area, NATO allowed to bomb Serbian military targets as warning, Serbs took 400 UN hostages, UN more cautious

Serbs took 30 peacekeeper hostages, threatened to attack UN compound sheltering refugees

Bosnian Serb commander Ratko Mladic 'allowed Muslims to leave safely', men and women separated, 7,000 men and boys killed, young women pulled off buses and raped

NATO decided any further Serb attacks would result in air strikes without UN approval, UN removed all peacekeepers from area so no hostages

Dayton peace accords, divided Bosnia in two, overseen by and signed in USA

over 2.7 million Bosnians recieved humanitarian aid

UN created International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 161 indicted

1991-95

civil war break out 1991, people were divided into clans - warlords fought for power and unpopular gov overthrown, crop failure and famine - crops and cattle targeted by looters/militia

achieved in UN headquarter talks March 1992

multinational peacekeeping mission, 500 UN peacekeepers arrived in sept 1992, ineffective - warlords disagreed with UN presence and violence continued

Unified Task Force, create safe conditions for humanitarian aid delivery

25,400 US troops, 12,900 other members

UNICEF, WHO and Red Cross

food and medicine distribution enabled - famine ending within few months, uneasy truce between warlords, UN controlled 40% Somalia - violence stopped in these areas

no effective gov or police force, warlords still active

encouraged disarmament and reconciliation, 1st time UN got involved in internal affairs since Congo and 1st time with agreement of security council, enforce UN decisions and rebuild Somalia

warlord, saw disarmament as means of weakening him - attacked UN, one attack killed 24 UN troops

unprecedented unanimous resolution - all necessary measures taken against attacks on UN, US special forces involved, US$25,000 reward for Aideed's capture

violence continued despite over US$2.5 million a day spent, 18 US troops killed - withdrew 1994, UN withdrew 1995 - still lack of political stability and warlords opposed to each other

1990-94

independence from Portugal 1975 - civil war not long after, gov forces led by Mozambican Liberation Front vs Mozambique Resistance Movement (RENAMO), 1991 severe drought

both sides signed General Peace Agreement (GPA), included UN peacekeeping force

UN mission for Mozambique, deal with key threats to GPA and build long-term peace

led by UN Special Representative Aldo Ajello - didn't have to ask security council so could deal with problems quickly

used large UNCIVPOL forces, all parties had agreed, monitored all police activities and worked with Mozambique police, oversaw election campaign

1st multi-party elections oct 1994 - won by Mozambican Liberation Front

UN forces withdrew as planned when mandate ended - Jan 1995

everyone agreed to UN intervention, all major powers and security council supported ONUMOZ, changes in South Africa - less of a threat to Mozambique, disarmament - many militia members given demobilisation money to help build new lives

2005-11

2005, signed Comprehensive Peace Agreement, UN established UNMIS to carry out agreement, arms embargo on Sudan

2003 during peace negotiations between North and South - crisis in Darfur province, Darfur accused Sudanese gov of neglecting it, fight between Darfur rebel groups and Sudanese forces allied with Janjaweed militia

Sudanese force air attacks on civilians, Janjaweed rode into villages on horseback and killed people, ethnic cleansing

African Union, sent African Mission in Sudan (AMIS) to Darfur but crisis just worsened

peace deal between North and South close, US and GB fighting in Iraq, complex issue, Chinese deal for Sudanese oil

2006, Sudanese gov wouldn't allow, UN just supported AMIS

19,000 peacekeepers, despite 'responsibility to protect' principles only allowed self-defence and protect civilians, aim example - support voluntary disarmament

joint AU and UN, 18,000 peacekeepers sent 2008

16,730 aid workers, reduced 2009 when leader Omar al-Bashir kicked out International Organisations due to International Criminal Court accusing him of war crimes

created 2011, UN provided military liaison officers - still there as of 2017

Sudanese gov signed peace deal with lots of rebel groups - formed the Liberation and Justice Movement, other groups refused to accept - violence continues, UNAMID still there, refugee camps permanent