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Physical, environmental, social, intellectual, spiritual, and emotional health.

Emotions, family and friends, cultureeligion, cost/affordability, availability/convenience, health.

Higher energy levels, improved digestion, sport recovery and injury prevention, better focus and cognition, improved sleep patterns and mood, better blood flow and sugar levels, clear skin, glossy hair, and strong nails.

Type 2 diabetes, heart disease, cancers, high blood pressure, dementia, osteoporosis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, varicose veins, haemorrhoids, diverticulosis, and gout.

Nutrition can influence the risk of certain cancers, especially in organs where food travels, by affecting carcinogenic compounds and exposure to harmful pathogens.

Poor appetite, nausea, vomiting, loss of taste, and cachexia (weight and muscle loss).

Adequate nutrition supports recovery of muscle mass and helps re-establish optimal energy levels.

The Mediterranean diet, which emphasizes high consumption of α-Linolenic acid and whole foods, and limited processed foods.

They are rich in phytochemicals and antioxidants.

Rich in isoflavones and protein, they help regulate blood lipids, reduce platelet aggregation, increase vascular reactivity, and have antithrombotic actions.

Soluble fiber in whole grains decreases LDL cholesterol.

IBD includes Crohn's disease and Ulcerative Colitis, which involve inflammation of the lower digestive tract, causing pain, diarrhea, weight loss, and fevers.

High consumption of Omega-3 fatty acids and limited intake of caffeine, gastric stimulants, creamy foods, chili, and garlic.

A condition characterized by pouches in the intestines, with treatment focusing on avoiding small and trigger foods and increasing chewing.

A common condition affecting approximately 1 in 7 people.

Macular degeneration, glaucoma, and cataracts.

To provide advice on eating for health and wellbeing, aiming to reduce the risk of diet-related conditions and chronic diseases.

Health professionals, policy makers, educators, food manufacturers, food retailers, researchers, and applicable to all healthy Australians.

To achieve and maintain a healthy weight, be physically active, and choose nutritious foods and drinks to meet energy needs.

A food selection guide that visually represents the proportion of the five food groups recommended for daily consumption.

The shape changed from a pyramid to a pie.

Limit intake of foods containing saturated fat, added salt, added sugars, and alcohol.

Fruits, Vegetables and legumes, Milk, yoghurt and cheese, Lean meats, fish, poultry and eggs, Bread, cereals, pasta and rice (grains), plus an allowance for fats and oils.

Too much alcohol, too many saturated fats, sodium, and sugar, and not enough fibre, wholegrains, legumes, fruits, and vegetables.

While fat consumption can be bad for cholesterol and weight gain, diets high in healthy fats are important for energy and overall health.

Meat is important for growth and development due to its high protein and iron content, but excessive consumption can be carcinogenic.

Research shows benefits of soy for the body, but many people remain sceptical about its properties in relation to cancer risk.

Digestion is a complex process starting in the mouth and finishing in the lower bowels, involving mechanical and chemical breakdown of food.

Food is chewed and broken down into smaller pieces by teeth, while saliva moistens and softens food.

Amylase enzyme.

The involuntary muscle contractions that push food down the oesophagus into the stomach.

Food is churned mechanically and turned into chyme through the secretion of pepsin enzymes and hydrochloric acid.

Sphincters.

In the small intestine.

Villi are small hair-like projections in the small intestine that absorb nutrients into tiny blood vessels.

The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes and hormones into the duodenum, including lipases, proteases, amylase, sodium bicarbonate, insulin, and glucagon.

Bile helps break down fats.

The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile by removing water.

To rid the body of toxins, regulate blood sugar levels, and produce bile and cholesterol.

Tissue-resident macrophages in the liver that make up 60% of liver tissue.

A maximum of 24 hours.

The role of the appendix is unknown, but it may be involved in fighting infections.

The breakdown of food takes between 2 to 72 hours to complete.

Chyme is the acidic liquid formed in the stomach after food is churned and mixed with digestive juices.

The pancreas is pistol-shaped and located behind the stomach, level with the top of the small intestine.

Gallstones may form.

Appendicitis, which occurs when a blockage happens at the junction of the appendix and the large intestine.

To convert food waste products into feces.

Caffeine consumption, fat and fiber content of foods, hydration status, stress, exercise patterns, and artificial sweeteners.

The sum of all chemical reactions in living cells that produce ATP from the digestion of food.

Chemical reactions where smaller molecules join to form larger compounds, requiring energy (e.g., synthesis of glycogen from glucose).

Chemical reactions where larger compounds are broken down into smaller ones, releasing energy (e.g., breakdown of glycogen into glucose).

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) fuels cellular processes by transferring phosphate groups, releasing energy.

The energy obtained from consuming food and drink, measured in kilojoules or calories.

1 calorie equals 4.18 kilojoules.

Fat: 9 cal or 37 kJ

The energy required to maintain life while at rest, accounting for 60-70% of total energy expenditure.

Age, gender, genetics, and body composition.

The metabolic process of obtaining energy from food, representing about 10% of total energy expenditure.

Protein: 30%

The additional energy required for physical activities, split into exercise and non-exercise components.

Approximately 5%, but can be up to 15-30% in athletes or regular gym-goers.

It includes basic movements throughout the day and can represent 5-10% of total energy expenditure.

As glycogen in skeletal muscles and liver, and as fat in adipose tissue when glycogen stores are full.

Essential components that provide energy and are a key part of the human diet.

They provide energy in the form of glucose.

Glycogen.

Approximately 50%.

Sugars, starches, and dietary fiber.

Glucose.

Single sugars, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose.

Fructose.

Maltose is a disaccharide made from two glucose molecules, produced during seed germination and fermentation.

Sucrose is a disaccharide made from glucose and fructose, refined from sugar cane and sugar beets.

Lactose is a disaccharide made from glucose and galactose, found in milk and milk products.

Carbohydrates derived from few (oligosaccharides) or many (polysaccharides) glucose units linked together.

Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in the body, providing rapid energy release when needed.

It provides structure in plants and cannot be broken down by human enzymes.

The body breaks down starches and sugars into short glucose chains called dextrins, which are further broken down into monosaccharides.

In the mouth, where salivary amylase hydrolyzes starches into short polysaccharides and maltose.

Amylase, maltase, sucrase, and lactase.

Water is used to break the bonds between sugar units, converting complex carbs to simple sugars.

The body makes more glucose from protein through a process called gluconeogenesis.

Having adequate carbohydrates in the diet to prevent the breakdown of protein for energy.

They may cause dizziness and weakness.

Insulin.

Glucagon.

A number between 1 and 100 indicating how easily the body can digest the food and how quickly blood glucose levels rise.

They have minimal influence over GI.

Low GI: <55, Medium GI: 56-69, High GI: >70.

They cause blood glucose levels to spike quickly and then drop drastically.

Insulin helps glucose move from the blood into the body's cells for energy or storage, preventing high blood sugar levels.

Insulin secretion decreases, and hormones like glucagon release stored glucose to restore balance.

Type 1 diabetes requires insulin injections due to the destruction of insulin-producing cells, while Type 2 diabetes involves insufficient insulin production or insulin resistance.

Less than 10% of total energy intake, with below 5% (25g or 6 teaspoons) being better.

Molasses is a thick brown syrup from sugar refining that retains some minerals, with blackstrap molasses containing significant calcium and iron.

HFCS is made from cornstarch treated with an enzyme that converts some glucose to fructose, making it sweeter.

Soluble fiber and insoluble fiber.

It reduces cholesterol, treats constipation, protects the stomach, and is easily fermented in the colon.

Vegetables, legumes, seaweed, oats, barley, and some fruits.

It has a dry texture, increases satiety, and has a laxative effect by adding bulk to stool.

Resistant starches are classified as fiber and are found in legumes, some cereals, raw potatoes, and unripe bananas.

Phytic acid binds minerals and can prevent absorption, but the risk is minimal with reasonable fiber intake.

Cellulose is a type of fiber found in all vegetables, fruits, and legumes.

It releases a massive amount of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, which is associated with addictive behaviors.

Honey is primarily composed of sucrose, fructose, and glucose.

Granulated sugar is crystalline sucrose (99.9% pure), while icing sugar is finely powdered sucrose (99.9% pure).

Brown sugar is refined white sugar crystals with added molasses syrup.

Dextrose is an older name for glucose.

Levulose is an older name for fructose.

Fiber helps with weight control and Type 2 diabetes by enhancing satiety and regulating blood sugar levels.

Excessive fiber can cause abdominal discomfort and inhibit nutrient absorption.

Hemicellulose is a soluble fibre mainly found in cereals.

Pectins are gel-forming fibres found mainly in fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits and apples.

Gums and mucilages are commonly used as thickeners in processed foods.

Lignin is mostly found in nuts and seeds and is known for its toughness.

Proteins are made of combinations of 20 different amino acids.

Proteins help the body grow or repair tissue, make enzymes, antibodies, and hormones, and are components of blood.

Protein is needed in all growth and developmental stages of life.

Hydrophilic side groups are attracted to water, while hydrophobic side groups repel water.

Protein denaturation is the uncoiling of protein that changes its ability to function, often caused by heat and acid.

The dietary protein needs for active individuals are 1.5 to 2-fold higher than the RDA of 0.8 g/kg/d.

Protein synthesis is the biological process by which cells build proteins from amino acids.

Stomach acid and enzymes denature protein, breaking it down into polypeptides, which are further broken down into smaller peptides and amino acids in the small intestine.

High-quality protein provides the best assurance of getting all essential amino acids.

Complementary proteins are combinations of plant foods that together provide all essential amino acids.

Protein quality is measured by its amino acid content, digestibility, and ability to support growth.

Animal proteins are 90-99% absorbed, soy and legumes are 90% absorbed, while other plant proteins are 70-90% absorbed.

Limiting amino acids are essential amino acids supplied in amounts lower than needed to support protein synthesis.

A reference protein is the standard by which other proteins are measured, established based on the needs of preschool children.

High-quality proteins contain all the essential amino acids, typically found in animal foods.

Skeletal muscle is voluntary muscle that you control consciously for movement.

Skeletal muscle is highly adaptive and dynamic, constantly turning over in response to internal and external stimuli.

Skeletal muscle tissue is constantly broken down and rebuilt at a rate of approximately 1-2% per day.

Muscle hypertrophy occurs when muscle synthesis is greater than muscle breakdown.

Muscle deconditioning can result from injury, fasting, long-term lack of training, old age, cancer cachexia, immobilization, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes.

Amino acids are the building blocks of muscle tissues and act as anabolic stimuli to initiate muscle protein synthesis.

There are 9 essential amino acids.

Leucine is one of the most effective amino acids at stimulating anabolic pathways and improving muscle protein synthesis efficiency.

It is the process where amino acids from food reach the muscles within approximately 2 hours, influenced by hormonal responses, particularly insulin.

Factors include source, amount, co-ingestion with other macronutrients, timing of consumption, and method of food preparation.

Combining carbohydrates with protein does not improve muscle protein synthesis.

Animal-based (higher quality) and plant-based (often considered incomplete due to lower proportions of certain amino acids).

It is recommended to spread protein consumption across the day by consuming 20-30g of protein at each meal.

Muscle contractions from physical activity are anabolic stimuli that can increase protein synthesis for up to 24 hours.

Whey protein is fast-digesting and stimulates muscle protein synthesis more effectively than casein, which is slower-digesting.

Physical activity before protein consumption increases muscle protein synthesis.

Fats are broken down into fatty acids during digestion.

Insulin influences the uptake of amino acids into muscle tissues.

BCAAs are a group of essential amino acids that signal to initiate muscle protein synthesis.

Mincing, cooking, and chewing well can increase protein absorption, especially from plant-based sources.

Timing of protein consumption can affect muscle protein synthesis, with protein before bedtime potentially aiding muscle recovery.

Essential, conditionally non-essential, and non-essential.

Each amino acid has a unique side group that distinguishes it from others.

Muscle reconditioning mainly occurs in response to anabolic stimuli such as resistance training and food intake.

Animal-based proteins are often considered higher quality and more effective for muscle protein synthesis compared to plant-based proteins.

They are involved in several growth and developmental processes.

Fats provide twice as many kJ as carbohydrates or protein.

Fats act as cushions for internal and reproductive organs.

Monounsaturated fatty acids, Polyunsaturated fatty acids, Saturated fatty acids, Trans fats.

Approximately 30%.

Less than 8-10% of total energy intake.

Triglycerides.

Phospholipids are major components of all cell membranes, found in eggs, liver, lean meats, fish, shellfish, cereal grains, and some seeds.

Cholesterol is used to make vitamin D, certain hormones (testosterone, estrogen), and regulate brain function.

Saturated fats are typically solid, while unsaturated fats are typically liquid.

Trans-fatty acids increase LDL cholesterol and decrease HDL cholesterol.

Naturally occurring trans fats and artificial trans fats.

Through a process that adds hydrogen to liquid vegetable oils (hydrogenation).

Red meat, butter, cheese, and other animal-based foods.

Nuts, seeds, avocados, and olive oil.

Fatty acids consist of a linear, even-numbered hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group (C-O-OH) at one end.

MUFAs have one double bond, while PUFAs have two or more double bonds.

They help control LDL cholesterol and increase good HDL cholesterol.

The omega number corresponds to the position of the first double bond in the fatty acid chain.

It decreases the likelihood of cancer and chronic disease.

All fatty acids have the same basic structure of a hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group.

Medium- and short-chain fatty acids.

They raise the risk of heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.

The position of the first double bond along the carbon chain.

They reduce the risk of heart diseases and stroke, and mediate inflammatory responses.

Vegetable oils (canola, soybean, flaxseed), walnuts, flaxseeds, and fatty fish (mackerel, salmon, sardines).

By eating more fish and less meat, and by baking or grilling fish.

To provide energy, cushioning, and insulation for essential organs.

Fat that the body can store in unlimited amounts when consumed in excess.

The type and quantity of adipokine secretions change, affecting the body's health.

Vitamins A, D, E, and K that rely on fat for absorption and storage.

Absorption of fat soluble vitamins may be limited, leading to impaired functioning and potential deficiencies.

Fats that are naturally found in foods or added during cooking, which are easy to recognize and limit.

Fats contained within pre-packaged or pre-prepared foods that are often consumed without recognition.

They help regulate metabolism, act as coenzymes and antioxidants, form part of proteins and hormones, and prevent deficiency-related diseases.

Alphabetically (e.g., B1, B2, B3, etc.), but are now known by their chemical names.

Recommended Daily Intake.

They provide guidelines for nutrient intake based on age group, gender, and life stage.

Ascorbic acid.

Promotes gum, teeth, and bone health

Citrus fruits, blackcurrants, mango, kiwifruit, berries, guava, and many green vegetables.

Prolonged or high-temperature cooking can reduce Vitamin C content by 30-40%.

45 mg per day for adults aged 19-70+ years.

Potential for deficiency-related diseases such as scurvy.

They form part of the structure of proteins, hormones, and blood.

The liver can convert excess carbohydrate and protein to fat.

200 mg

More than 1000 mg/day

Nausea, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, reduced effect of some prescription medications, risk of kidney stones, iron overload.

Scurvy

Generally feeling unwell, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, diarrhea, fever, painful joints and muscles, small pinpoint bleeding around hair follicles.

Swollen and purple gums that bleed, loose teeth, bulging eyes, scaly skin, slow healing wounds, very dry hair that curls and breaks off, bleeding into joints and muscles.

People with unhealthy diets, extreme dieters, elderly or young children needing assistance, people with allergies on restrictive diets, smokers, and fussy eaters.

They help release energy from macronutrients and assist in metabolism and cell multiplication.

Metabolism of carbohydrates and fats, release of energy from food, appetite regulation, digestion, heart and nervous system function, peripheral nerve myelination, and brain function.

Yeast extract, wheat germran, nuts, fortified cereals, liver, kidney, pork, peas, wholemeal flourread, sesame seeds.

1.2 mg/day for men and 1.1 mg/day for women.

Beriberi.

FMN (flavin mononucleotide) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide).

1.3 mg/day for men and 1.1 mg/day for women.

Inflamed eyelids, sensitivity to light, sore throat, cracks at mouth corners, purplish red tongue, skin lesions.

Beef, tofu, milk, fish, mushrooms, pork, spinach, almonds, avocados, eggs.

Involved in the metabolism of glucose, fat, and alcohol.

NAD and NADP.

In niacin equivalents (NE), where 60 mg of dietary tryptophan equals 1 mg of niacin.

16 NE/day for men and 14 NE/day for women.

Diarrhea, abdominal pain, vomiting, inflamed tongue, depression, fatigue, headaches, rash in sunlight.

Fish, chicken, turkey, pork, beef, mushrooms, brown rice, peanuts, avocados, green peas.

Fish, chicken, turkey, pork, beef, mushrooms, brown rice, peanuts, avocados, green peas.

It is involved in fat and energy metabolism.

No, deficiency and toxicity are rare.

Organ meats, mushrooms, avocados, broccoli, and wholegrain foods.

Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) and pyridoxamine phosphate (PMP).

1.3 mg/day.

Scaly dermatitis, anemia, depression, confusion, abnormal brainwave patterns, and convulsions.

Fish, chicken, tofu, pork, beef, sweet potatoes, bananas, potatoes, avocados, and pistachios.

It assists in glycogen synthesis, fat synthesis, and amino-acid metabolism.

30 μg/day for men and 25 μg/day for women.

Organ meats, eggs, fish, meat, seeds, nuts, and certain vegetables like sweet potatoes.

Folic acid, folacin, and pteroylglutamic acid (PGA).

400 μg/day.

Macrocytic anemia, smooth red tongue, mental confusion, weakness, fatigue, irritability, headaches.

Dark green leafy vegetables, beans, lentils, asparagus, avocado, mangoes, sweet corn, oranges, and whole wheat bread.

It is involved in the synthesis of new cells, maintenance of nerve cells, and helps reform folate coenzymes.

2.4 μg/day.

Large-cell anemia, fatigue, depression, degeneration of peripheral nerves, and potential paralysis.

Clams, mussels, crab, salmon, beef, chicken, eggs, milk, and cheese.

Atrophic gastritis destroys stomach cells, limiting absorption and potentially leading to pernicious anemia.

Energy metabolism and nerve function.

Beriberi, which includes weakness, nerve damage, and cardiovascular damage.

Whole grains, pork, and legumes.

Energy production and metabolism of fats, drugs, and steroids.

Energy production and metabolism of fats, drugs, and steroids.

Ariboflavinosis, which can cause sore throat, mouth inflammation, and skin disorders.

Dairy products, eggs, and leafy greens.

Energy production and DNA repair.

Pellagra, which includes symptoms of dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia.

Meat, fish, and whole grains.

Synthesizing co-enzyme A, vital for fatty acid metabolism.

Fatigue, irritability, and numbness.

Chicken, beef, and avocados.

Amino acid metabolism and neurotransmitter synthesis.

Anemia, depression, and confusion.

Poultry, fish, and bananas.

Macronutrient metabolism.

Hair loss, skin rashes, and neurological symptoms.

Eggs, nuts, and seeds.

DNA synthesis and cell division.

Megaloblastic anemia and neural tube defects in newborns.

Leafy greens, legumes, and fortified cereals.

Red blood cell formation and neurological function.

Anemia and neurological issues.

Meat, fish, and dairy products.

A, D, E, K.

They are insoluble in watery gastrointestinal juices.

Vision, maintenance of epithelial cells, protein synthesis, reproduction and growth, and antioxidant activity.

Impaired immunity, changes in epithelial cells, and night blindness.

Leafy green vegetables, orange and yellow vegetables, tomatoes, cantaloupe, beef liver, fish oils, milk, and eggs.

As a cure for rickets, a disease causing softening of the bones in children.

Vitamin D is a non-essential nutrient that acts like a hormone

Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) is plant-based, while vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is animal-based.

Activation occurs through the action of the liver and the kidneys.

Vitamin D supports the immune system, brain and nervous system, pancreas, skin, muscles, cartilage, reproductive organs, promotes bone growth, and maintains blood levels of calcium and phosphorus.

Factors include dark pigmentation, breastfeeding without supplementation, limited sun exposure, and an unhealthy diet.

Deficiency disorders include rickets in children, osteomalacia, and osteoporosis in adults.

At-risk populations include older people with limited sunlight exposure, individuals with very dark skin, those living in southern regions during winter, veiled individuals, babies born to vitamin D deficient women, and people with obesity.

Symptoms include elevated blood calcium, calcification of soft tissues, and frequent urination.

The UL for adults is 80 μg/day.

5 μg/day for adults 19-50 years, 10 μg/day for adults 51-70 years, and 15 μg/day for adults above 70 years.

Food sources include fortified milk, orange juice, butter, margarine, egg yolks, liver, and fatty fish.

Vitamin E, specifically alpha-tocopherol, acts as an antioxidant.

The RDI for vitamin E is 10 mg/day for men and 7 mg/day for women.

Foods high in vitamin E include polyunsaturated plant oils, margarine, salad dressings, green leafy vegetables, wheatgerm, wholegrain foods, liver, egg yolks, nuts, and seeds.

Primary deficiency is rare but can occur in premature infants, leading to erythrocyte haemolysis and haemolytic anaemia.

The UL for adults is 300 mg/day.

Vitamin K, also known as phylloquinone, menaquinone, and menadione, is mostly synthesized by intestinal bacteria.

Antibiotics can kill gut bacteria, disrupting the synthesis of vitamin K.

Vitamin K is essential for blood clotting, and deficiency can lead to uncontrolled bleeding.

Deficiencies can occur in newborn infants and individuals taking antibiotics.

Newborns are given vitamin K injections because their gut microbiota is not fully developed.

It participates in the synthesis of blood-clotting proteins and bone proteins that regulate blood calcium.

Haemorrhagic diseases may develop, but haemophilia, a hereditary disorder, is not cured with vitamin K.

The use of antibiotics.

70 μg/day for men and 60 μg/day for women.