ETHICS AND PREJURISDENCE

Greek word “Ethos” a characteristic way of acting

ancient romans translated the Greek work “ETHOS” as mos/moris

latin word mos/moris

Ethics is concerned with moral
principles, values and standards of
conduct.

may be defined as the system or code of conduct
and morals advocated by a particular individual or group.

The study of acceptable conduct and moral judgment.

is a system of understanding determinations and
motivations based on individual conceptions of right and
wrong.

It is not determined by strict rules or rigid guidelines, and
although it is relatively stable, it can change over time.

Ethics was born of necessity when humans first
realized that they required certain behaviors to get
along as a group. As time passed, certain
individuals were credited with providing bricks in
the foundation of ethics

is the differentiation
of intentions, decisions, and
actions between those that
are distinguished as proper
(right) and those that are
improper (wrong).

morality is
deeply rooted in his philosophical
framework, emphasizing the
relationship between the
individual, the state, and the
concept of the Good.

often referred to as the
"Father of Medicine," was a pivotal
figure in the development of medical
ethics and practice during the 5th and
6th centuries BC.

His contributions laid the groundwork
for the practice of medicine as a
distinct profession, separate from
philosophy and religion.

the most important document in the history of Ethics. code was formulated in August 1947 in Nuremberg Germany by American judges sitting in judgement of NAZI doctor accused of conducting murderous and torturous human experiments in the concentration camps the so called “DOCTORS TRIAL”.

It served as a blueprint for todays principles
that ensure the rights of subjects in medical
research.

human subject is absolutely essential. This means that the person involved should have the legal capacity to give consent, be able to exercise free power of choice without the intervention of any element of force, fraud, deceit, duress, or coercion, and should have sufficient knowledge and understanding of the experiment's nature, duration, purpose, methods, potential risks, and effects.

The experiment should be conducted with the aim of yielding
fruitful results for the good of society, which are unprocurable by
other methods or means of study and are not random or
unnecessary in nature.

The experiment should be based on the results of animal
experimentation and a knowledge of the natural history of the
disease or other problem under study. This is to ensure that the
anticipated results will justify the performance of the experiment.

The experiment should be conducted in a way that avoids all
unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury

No experiment should be conducted where there is an a priori
reason to believe that death or disabling injury will occur, except
perhaps in those experiments where the experimental physicians
also serve as subjects.

The degree of risk to be taken should never exceed that determined by the
humanitarian importance of the problem to be solved by the experiment.

Proper preparations should be made and adequate facilities provided to
protect the subjects against even remote possibilities of injury, disability, or
death.

The experiment should be conducted only by scientifically qualified persons.
The highest degree of skill and care should be required throughout all stages
of the experiment by those who conduct or engage in the experiment

During the course of the experiment, the human subject should be at
liberty to bring the experiment to an end if they have reached the physical
or mental state where continuation seems impossible

The scientist in charge must be prepared to terminate the experiment at
any stage if they have probable cause to believe, in the exercise of the
good faith, superior skill, and careful judgment required of them, that a
continuation of the experiment is likely to result in injury, disability, or
death to the experimental subject.

THE NUREMBERG CODE PRINCIPLES

is a set of ethical
principles for medical research involving
human subjects, including research on
identifiable human material and data.
➢ It was developed by the World Medical
Association (WMA) and was first adopted in
1964 in Helsinki, Finland.
➢ The declaration serves as a cornerstone
document for the ethical conduct of research,
particularly in the fields of medicine and
healthcare.

The declaration
emphasizes respect for all participants, recognizing
their rights to self-determination and the right to
make informed decisions about their participation in
research. This includes obtaining voluntary, informed
consent from research participants.

The declaration asserts that the welfare of the research
participants should always take precedence over the
interests of science and society. Researchers must
aim to minimize harm and maximize benefits for
participants.

It requires researchers to carefully assess the risks and
benefits of their studies. Research should be
conducted only if the potential benefits justify the
risks involved.

Participants must be fully
informed about the study, including its aims,
methods, potential risks, and benefits. Consent
must be obtained freely, without coercion or undue
influence, and participants must be informed that
they can withdraw from the study at any time
without penalty.

Special consideration is given to vulnerable groups,
such as children, the elderly, and those unable
to give informed consent. Researchers must
ensure that the rights and welfare of these
groups are protected.

The declaration mandates that researchers must
protect the privacy of research subjects and the
confidentiality of their personal information

All research protocols should be reviewed
by an independent ethics committee before the research
begins. This review ensures that the study meets ethical
standards and that the rights of participants are protected.

Research must be conducted according to sound scientific principles and be
transparent in its conduct. Findings should be made publicly
available, whether the results are positive, negative, or
inconclusive.

The declaration also addresses the
responsibilities of researchers after the study concludes,
including providing participants with access to the best
proven interventions identified by the study.

KEY PRINCIPLES OF DECLARATION OF
HELSINKI

is a declaration of medical ethics adopted by the
World Medical Association (WMA) in 1948. DECLERATION OF GENEVA

It was developed in response to the atrocities
committed during World War II, particularly the
unethical medical practices and human
experimentation by Nazi doctors. The
declaration was intended to promote ethical
standards in the medical profession and reaffirm
the commitment of physicians to prioritize the
well-being of patients.

Physicians pledge to dedicate their lives to the service of humanity, placing the health and well-being of their patients above all else.

The declaration emphasizes respect for human life and the physician's duty to protect and preserve it.

Physicians pledge to provide
care without discrimination based on factors such as age,
disease, disability, creed, ethnic origin, gender,
nationality, political affiliation, race, sexual orientation,
social standing, or any other factor

A commitment to respect patient
confidentiality and privacy is a key element, unless
required otherwise by law.

The declaration stresses the
importance of respecting the autonomy and dignity of
the patient, and the physician’s responsibility to
maintain respect for the profession.

Physicianspledge to maintain their medical knowledge and skills through continuous learning, ensuring that they provide the best possible care.

It includes a commitment to respect and
cooperate with colleagues and other health
professionals.

Physicians commit to not using their medical
knowledge contrary to the laws of humanity,
even under threat.

KEY PRINCIPLE OF
DECLARATION OF GENEVA

ETHICAL PHILOSOPHIES

founder of modern Utilitarianism

is often called consequentialism advocates that actions are morally correct or right when the largest number of persons benefit from the decision made.

comes from the Greek word “Deon” meaning “duty”. It upholds the philosophy that the rules are to be followed at all times by all individuals.

founder of deontology a german philosopher

uses formal
rules of right and wrong for
reasoning and problem
solving and judges an
action on its merits alone,
not on any possible
consequences it may have.

The end does not justifies the means

The end justifies the means

Developed virtue ethics

Comes from the Greek word “Arete”
meaning “Excellence” is a
philosophical belief that focuses on
using wisdom rather than emotional
and intellectual solving.

Are qualities of doing what is right
and avoiding what is wrong.
➢ Ethical behaviors flow from
characteristics that people acquired
overtime.
➢ It is developed from childhood to
adolescence, and to the final stages
of an adult.

defined as the branch
of ethics dealing with dilemmas faced by
medical professionals, patients, and their
families and friends.

described asguidelines for proper activities and attitudes toward patients and peers.

suggests a standard of conduct that is expected of members of the profession. These standards are based on the seven principles of biomedical ethics.

PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL ETHICS

that “one human person,
precisely as a human person, dares not have
the authority and should not have power
over another human person. In a medical
sense, a patient will not be treated without
informed consent of his or her lawful
surrogates, except in narrowly defined
emergencies.”

Respect for the patient's right to make their
own decisions about their healthcare.

Performance of good acts, encompass many aspects of
goodness, promoting good action
and preventing evil or harm and requires the action of
an imaging professional to do
good or prevent harm

The avoidance of evil. principle of "do no harm," which
requires healthcare professionals to
avoid causing harm to patients.

obligation to protect
patient privacy and keep their
medical information
confidential. keeping secret “A secret is knowledge a
person has a right or obligation
to conceal

secrets that arise from the fact that
harm will follow if a particular
knowledge is revealed.

TYPES OF SECRETS

principle of fairness, Moral rightness, equal
treatment of patients. Equitable, fair or just
conduct in dealing with
others.

Implies to an obligation or faithfulness to duty. Being loyal

is defined as the obligation
to tell the truth and not to
lie or deceive others.

Refers to the fact that some
actions may produce both a
good and a bad effect

which states that a person may
perform an act that has evil
effects or risk such effects as
long as four conditions are met

The act is good or morally neutral. The intent is good, not evil, although a bad result may be foreseen. The good effect must be more
important than the evil effect, or at least there is favorable balance between good over bad

Refers to the attitude that
sometimes prompts healthcare
workers to make decisions
regarding a person’s care
without consulting the person
affected.

Refers to the belief that life is the highest good and nobody has the right to judge another person’s
quality of life. "One cannot make life-and-death
decisions for patients based on
personal values."

keeping the patients’ belongings
safe and taking care not to
intentionally damage or waste
equipment or supplies with
which one works.