Bio 25 Exam #2

epithelium
connective tissue
muscle
nervous tissue

protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, and sensory reception

organization of different domains within the cell

at top of cell
has microvilli or cilia
increases the surface area of a cell
involved with sensory perception, protien distribution

contains cell junctions
maintain integrity of the layers
crucial for structure

serves as a basement
responsible for nutrient uptake and waste removal
helps with overall organization and function of the epithelial tissue

this type of epithelium typically lines blood vessels and body cavities and regulates the passage of substances into underlying tissue

This type of epithelium usually has protective functions, including protection against microorganisms from invading underlying tissue and/or protection against water loss. The outer layer of your skin (the epidermis) is made of stratified squamous epithelial cells.

This type of epithelium is typically found in glandular (secreting) tissue and kidney tubules.

This type of epithelium is not as common and is found in the excretory ducts of your salivary and sweat glands.

A transitional epithelium (also known as urothelium) is made up of several layers of cells that become flattened when stretched. It lines most of your urinary tract and allows your bladder to expand.

This type of epithelium is often specialized for absorption and usually has apical cilia or microvilli. These cells line your stomach and intestines.

This type of epithelium is not as common and is seen in the mucous membrane (conjunctiva) lining your eyelids, where it’s both protective and mucus-secreting.

This type of epithelium lines your upper respiratory tract and usually has a lot of cilia. Found in the nasal passage of the upper respiratory tract, trachea, bronchi of the lower respiratory tract, inner ear, vas deferens, prostate gland, epididymis, and endometrium

finger-like membrane protrusions, supported by the actin cytoskeleton, and found on almost all cell types. , play an important role in signal transduction leading to immune responses.

miniscule hair-like protrusions on the surface of sensory cells (also called hair cells) found deep within the cochlear and labyrinth structures of the inner ear. They serve as the key mechanosensors, responding to fluid motion for various functions, including hearing and balance.

a short microscopic hairlike vibrating structure found in large numbers on the surface of certain cells, either causing currents in the surrounding fluid, or, in some protozoans and other small organisms, providing propulsion.

Glucose is absorbed through the intestine by a transepithelial transport system initiated at the apical membrane by the cotransporter SGLT-1; intracellular glucose is then assumed to diffuse across the basolateral membrane through GLUT2.

Secondary active transport is defined as the transport of a solute in the direction of its increasing electrochemical potential coupled to the facilitated diffusion of a second solute (usually an ion) in the direction of its decreasing electrochemical potential

For a substance to cross the epithelium, it must be transported across the cell's plasma membranes by membrane transporters. Not only do tight junctions limit the flow of substances between cells, they also define compartments in the plasma membrane. The apical plasma membrane faces the lumen.

epidermis
dermis
hypodermis

stratum basale (the deepest portion of the epidermis), stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum (the most superficial portion of the epidermis).

protecting your body from the outside world, keeping your skin hydrated, producing new skin cells and determining your skin color.

the papillary dermis and the reticular dermis. The papillary dermis is the superficial layer, lying deep to the epidermis. The papillary dermis is composed of loose connective tissue that is highly vascular.

support and protect the skin and deeper layers, assist in thermoregulation, and aid in sensation.

The hypodermis is the bottom layer of skin in your body. It has many important functions, including storing energy, connecting the dermis layer of your skin to your muscles and bones, insulating your body and protecting your body from harm. As you age, your hypodermis decreases in size, and your skin starts to sag.

Eccrine sweat glands are distributed almost all over the human body, in varying densities, with the highest density in palms and soles, then on the head, but much less on the trunk and the extremities. Their water-based secretion represents a primary form of cooling in humans.

Apocrine glands in the skin and eyelid are sweat glands. Most apocrine glands in the skin are in the armpits, the groin, and the area around the nipples of the breast. Apocrine glands in the skin are scent glands, and their secretions usually have an odor.

This type of secretion is rare and these glands are found in the breast and constitute some sweat glands. Holocrine glands release whole secretory cells, which later disintegrate to release the secretory products. This type of secretion is seen in sebaceous glands associated with hair follicles.

The merocrine sweat glands are tubular glands and are found all over the body. They secrete watery perspiration that is carried directly to the surface of the skin. The highest number of merocrine glands are found in the palms and soles

Sudoriferous glands are sweat producing glands. These are important to help maintain body temperature. Sebaceous glands are oil producing glands which help inhibit bacteria, keep us waterproof and prevent our hair and skin from drying out.

head - uv protection, insulation
nasal, ear canal, eyelashes - prevents entry of foreign material
body - sensory

protect fingers and toes, made of dead skin cells
eating disorders effect nail struct and production

fibroblasts, mast cells, plasma cells, macrophages, adipocytes, and leukocytes

contributes to the formation of connective tissue, a fibrous cellular material that supports and connects other tissues or organs in the body. Fibroblasts secrete collagen proteins that help maintain the structural framework of tissues.

play an important role in how the immune system responds to certain bacteria and parasites and they help control other types of immune responses. They contain chemicals such as histamine, heparin, cytokines, and growth factors

Plasma cells are differentiated B-lymphocyte white blood cells capable of secreting immunoglobulin or antibodies.

ingest and degrade dead cells, debris, tumor cells, and foreign materials. They promote homeostasis by responding to internal and external changes within the body, not only as phagocytes, but also through trophic, regulatory, and repair functions.

They provide energy storage, insulation from extreme temperatures and cushioning around soft organs.

Leukocytes function in body defenses. They squeeze out of the walls of blood vessels through emigration or diapedesis, then may move through tissue fluid or become attached to various organs where they fight against pathogenic organisms, diseased cells, or other threats to health.

The extracellular matrix of both loose and dense connective tissue proper is composed of amorphous ground substance, extracellular fluid, and collagen and elastic fibers. The amorphous ground substance is a gelatinous material surrounding the fibers and permitting extracellular fluid to diffuse through.

Connective tissue contributes to numerous body functions, including supporting organs and cells, transporting nutrients and wastes, defending against pathogens, storing fat, and repairing damaged tissues. Connective tissue is composed primarily of an extracellular matrix and a limited number of cells.

Loose CT (or areolar tissue) is the most widespread CT of the body. It is characterized by an abundance of ground substance, plus thin and relatively few fibres and cells (Fig. 1.7). The main cellular elements are fibroblasts and a smaller amount of adipocytes.

The cell membrane will use passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion,
active transport, secondary active transport, Na/K ATPase pump,
leaky channels and voltage gated channels to create a membrane
potential. This creates an electrochemical gradient. It creates an
energy potential. This potential can be converted to a form of kinetic
energy to be used for all sorts of metabolic functions

For the neuron, the main players are the Na and K voltage gated
potentials, leaky channels and the NA/K ATPase pump

Typically the membrane potential is – 70 mv with the ICF being
negative. Remember large protein anions do not pass the cell
membrane.

Purpose is to send messages to the neuron’s cell body. The neuron
receiving these messages will “sum up” all the messages from many
synapses and will either 1. fire, 2. be inhibited or 3. be modified.

Graded potentials can VARY ACCORDING TO THE SIZE OF THE STIMULUS –
DIFFERENT THAN THE ALL OR NONE ACTION POTENTIAL. These stimuli are
created in the dendrites
If the collection of graded potentials is strong enough as it travels down to
the axon hillock and be at -55mV or above, it will trigger an action
potential. Action potentials will degrade or lessen as they travel unlike an
action potential.

Graded potentials can accumulate by temporal summation – one
synapse firing repeatly or by spatial summation with many synapses
firing at the same time. Some synapses can be excitatory and some
inhibitory. The neuron receiving the stimuli will sum up the stimuli.

It is responsible for initiating and controlling voluntary movements in the body by generating neural signals.

task switching and task-set reconfiguration, prevention of interference, inhibition, planning, and working memory

The parietal lobes are primarily responsible for receiving and processing sensory input such as touch, pressure, heat, cold, and pain. The parietal lobes are also involved in the perception of body awareness and the construction of a spatial coordinate system (mental map) to represent the world around us.

The frontal lobes are important for voluntary movement, expressive language and for managing higher level executive functions. Executive functions refer to a collection of cognitive skills including the capacity to plan, organise, initiate, self-monitor and control one's responses in order to achieve a goal.

The occipital lobe is the visual processing area of the brain. It is associated with visuospatial processing, distance and depth perception, color determination, object and face recognition, and memory formation.

They are most commonly associated with processing auditory information and with the encoding of memory. The temporal lobes are also believed to play an important role in processing affect/emotions, language, and certain aspects of visual perception.

memory, attention, impulse control, regulation of renal function, locomotion.

locomotion, attention, sleep, memory, learning.

cognition, impulse control, attention, sleep.

cognition, memory, fear, impulse control, attention, sleep.

stretch receptors within the body of a skeletal muscle that primarily detect changes in the length of the muscle. They convey length information to the central nervous system via afferent nerve fibers. This information can be processed by the brain as proprioception.

proprioceptors that are located in the tendon adjacent to the myotendinous junction. The Golgi tendon organ is a tree-like sensory ending enclosed in a spindle-like connective tissue capsule, that lies near the junction of a tendon with a muscle.

simple behaviors produced by central nervous system (CNS) pathways that lie entirely within the spinal cord.

transmits information regarding a person’s sense of smell to the brain.

transmits information to the brain regarding a person’s vision.

helps control muscle movements of the eyes.

facial sensation, muscle movement

facial expression

helps with a person’s hearing and balance.

posterior tongue control, produces saliva

digestion, heart rate, etc.

provides motor function to some muscles in the neck.

motor nerve that supplies the tongue muscles. It originates in the medulla.

parasympathetic- rest and digest
sympathetic - fight or flight

fight ir flight; increased heart rate and blood flow, heightened awareness

calms firing nerves in the CNS, high levels increase focus, low causes anxiety

affects attention; contracts blood flow

affects learning; activates muscles in the body

pleasure, addiction, movement/ motivation

most common; also involved in learning and memory

effects mood; well being and happiness

euphoria feeling from excercise, excitment, and sex