ACT English copy

SAT/ACT Grammar and Punctuation Rules Notes

Seven Parts of Speech nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions.

Nouns = people, places, things, & ideas.
Pronouns = can replace nouns.

Verbs

Action verbs: a noun’s actions

Linking verbs: a noun’s state of being (is, am, are, was,etc), becoming, seeming, and (sometimes) sensing

Descriptors & modifiers:

Adjectives for nouns/ pronouns.
Adverbs for verbs/adjectives/other adverbs

Prepositions = time & location words before a noun / pronoun:
ex:. “to,” “on,” “over,” “between,” “at,” etc.

Conjunctions link words, phrases, and clauses together.

All sentences contain a Subject noun/ pronoun + a verb describing the Subject's action or state of being.
Exs:
Mary won.
I won.

Mary or I = subject; won= verb.

Go! Stop! = sentences as
Subject = you is implied.

Noun Tip: Put an "a" or "the" before a potential noun.
If "A" or "the" + potential noun" sounds ok then noun
Exs
"The cat" = ok;

"A him" = not ok

Nominative cases relate to the subject
Subject + action verb or
Subject + linking verb + subject renamedestated/described

Linking “states of being” verbs asserts something about the subject.
Think of them as an equals sign.
Subject + Linking Verb + predicate nominative (P.N. if noun) or predicate adjective(P.A.)

ALWAYS linking verb forms= To be (is, am, are, was,etc), to become, & to seem EXCEPT when they help an adjacent verb.

Ex: Joe is climbing the fence. "is" =helping verb for verb “climbing.”

SOMETIMES linking verbs: include
Appear, Remain, Grow, Prove, sensation verbs (Feel, Look, Smell, Sound, Taste)

Tip: Linking or action verb?

Linking verb if it links a noun (not helping verb) and you can replace verb with = sign.


Over

Direct Object (D.O.) noun form:
subject +action verb + D.O. where D.O. = What/ where/ to whom?

Exs: Mary won a race.
Mary won what? race= D.O.
Mary went to the store. “Mary went where?” D.O.= store

I got a perfect score on the SAT. “I got what?” D.O.=a score

The car rolled backwards. Rolled how? backwards =adverb not D.O. noun.

Once finding the D.O., find the I.D.O. who received the D.O.

Ex: I made Kim some brownies. I made what?→ brownies = D.O. Who received the brownies? → Kim =I.D.O.


Preposition’s Object= P.O.
All Prepositional phrases must contain a preposition & an object (PO).

To find the P.O., ask, "Preposition + what?"
Ex: I got a great score on the SAT. Preposition =on. "On what?" -> SAT=P.O.

Other Nouns

Gerund nouns occur when verb +-ing = noun
Ex Baking is a pleasurable hobby

Infinitive Nouns (I.N.) if "to” + simple verb + what? works
Ex: He likes to run. Likes = verb (Likes what? → “to run” =I..N.)

Appositive =a grammatically inessential noun flanked by commas or dashes that describes an adjacent noun.

Remove the appositive & sentence is still correct.
Ex: My friend, Mary, is an exceptional human being.
My friend is an exceptional human being. → still grammatically correct.

Common Nouns vs Proper Nouns = Always capitalized
Exs: girl, city, bridge, university, company, state
vs
Exs: San Francisco, Golden Gate Bridge

Concrete Nouns (physical matter) like
Exs: water, air, street, person, electrons

vs Abstract (not matter) Nouns = thoughts, ideas, subjects (math), games, ideals.
Ex: freedom, love, justice, hockey, circus, biology

Ex Aliyah was delighted to have the freedom to enjoy the art show in peace.
Abstract nouns = freedom, peace, show

Plural Nouns
To make singular nouns plural,
→add –s in most cases Ex cat + -s = cats
→add -es if it ends in –s, ss, sh, ch, x, or z. Ex fox-> foxes; buzz->buzzes; brunch-> brunches
→drop the -y and add -ies if its last two letters = consonant + -y Ex: pony → ponies fly → flies
→ drop the -f/-fe and add -ves for some singular nouns ending in -f or -fe. leaf → leaves, life → lives

Fully irregular plurals. mouse → mice child → children
man → men
goose → geese
foot → feet
Some singular words stay the same in their plural form.
deer → deer,
fish → fish,
sheep → sheep

NEVER ADD -'S to make a noun plural as apostrophes show a noun’s possession.

APOSTROPHES make nouns possess or own something.

Add -'s to make certain nouns possessive:
1- singular nouns
2- plural nouns not ending in -s.

For Plural nouns ending in -s,
just add an apostrophe ' to make these possessive.
Exs:
Singular nouns Bob's, mouse's, donkey's, a boy’s ball, a dress’s buttons
Plural nouns not ending in -s: children's, women's, mice's, her feet's toes, his children’s game,
several geese's fur
Plural noun ending in -s: purses', monkeys', dogs', the boys’ ball, dresses’ buttons

Pronouns = words that can replace nouns. Unlike nouns, pronouns have different cases, changing their form (I /me) depending on their role in the sentence.

Personal pronouns -
1st v 2nd vs 3rd person memory device: Say this sentence: “I will be the first person to tell you (the second person) that she is the third person and not here.”


See 2 pages on pronouns

Verbs Linking and action verbs discussed above

Conjugating Verbs
Most verbs follow a simple pattern in the present tense:
Present tense
Person Singular Plural
1st. . (I) walk (we) walk
2nd. (you) walk (you) walk
3rd (he/she/it) walks (they) walk

Note: Only the 3rd person singular (he/she/it) has the usual noun singular walks.

Subject-Verb Agreement
If the subject of clause is a singular or plural pronoun / noun then the corresponding verb must match.

Note: The SAT and ACT tries to place things between subjects and verbs:extra words, phrases, etc.

Ex: My sister, despite having to carry three children, walk five miles every day.

Solving this: cross out the stuff between the commas

My sister walk five miles every day. Use walks not walk
or
Find the verb, and then ask who is doing this action?
Who is walking? My sister =singular noun so use walks.

Maria and Joe likes to dance. Wrong Correct: Maria and Joe like to dance.

Act/ Sat tricks on subject-verb tense agreement. Normal word order can be flipped so that the subject comes before the verb, making disagreements hard to catch

Correct Beyond the valley lies a house and lake.
lies describes house and lake
singular = lie and plural = lies so latter is correct
cu you
Incorrect: In the trunk of my car resides 15 empty water bottles.
subject = “water bottles,” verb → plural form.
Correct: In the trunk of my car reside 15 empty water bottles.

Tricky example: Mastery of magic tricks that truly (surprise/surprises) the audience (requireequires) lots of time.
Mastery= singular & main subject of the sentence → Need the singular verb requires.
For the first verb surprises, ask the question “What is truly surprising the audience?” Magic tricks! Magic tricks are plural, so we need the plural verb surprise.
Correct sentence: Mastery of magic tricks that truly surprise the audience requires lots of time.

Other subject-verb agreement errors to know.
-Collective nouns (group, country, school, team, board, government, etc.) as well as each, every, and neither are singular.
-The number = singular whereas a number = plural.

See verb tense and pronoun one pager

Adjectives = descriptive words that modify nouns / pronouns and are usually placed just before their corresponding noun. Ex: The beautiful girl walked down the street.

Adjective types

Adjectives formed from nouns/ certain pronouns

Proper adjectives= formed from proper nouns/ must be capitalized.
Exs: I like Mexican food. He plays the French horn.

Demonstrative Adjectives this, that, these and those can double as pronoun
Exs as pronoun vs as adjective
That is the person I hate. vs. I hate that person.
These are my best friends. vs. My best friends are these people.

Possessive Adjectives - see section on Personal Pronouns my/ our/ your/ his// her/ their

Adjectives Formed from Nouns / Pronouns->
never use a comma between these adjectives & the noun it describes.
Ex: The basketball, player is tall. INCORRECT vs The basketball player is tall. CORRECT

Adjectives formed From Verbs = Participles
present participle verb + -ing The chirping birds woke him up.
past participle verb + -ed The burned chicken did not taste very good.

Adjectives as predicate adjectives. Discussed above

Adjective rules

Rule: Use comma between adjectives If more than one adjective precedes a noun and their order is reversible. No comma if you cannot reverse them without a change in meaning or clarity.
Ex:
The slobbering, feisty dog wagged his tail. The feisty, slobbering dog wagged his tail. correct
She went to the store to purchase spreadable chocolate frosting. CORRECT
She went to purchase chocolate, spreadable frosting. INCORRECT - ORDER MATTERS
Do not sit in the broken wood chair. CORRECT
Do not sit in the wood, broken chair. INCORRECT - ORDER MATTERS

Adverbs = words that describe or modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
Note: Use of adverbs vs. adjectives is tested.
Exs
He ran quickly down the street.
How did he run → Quickly =Adverb describing verb
She was very happy with the present.
She was what? Happy = adjective describes pronoun
How happy? Very = Adverb describes adjective
Stop talking so loudly!
Talking how? Loudly = adverb describes a verb; How loudly? so= adverb describing adverb


Many adverbs are formed by adding the ending -ly to an adjective
Exs careful → carefully easy → easily quiet → quietly

However, some adverbs are formed irregularly:
Adjective Adverb
Good well
Wrong wrong or wrongly

The following use the same words for adjectives and adverbs: Fast, Hard, Late, Early, Daily, Straight

Good = adjective vs well = adverb will be tested: "good"must describe a noun, not a verb.
Exs
The good girl drives very well. Good = adjective for girl; well =adverb for verb drives.
I did good on the test. = INCORRECT vs I did well on the test = CORRECT
I daily receive a daily newspaper. Note: While this sentence is redundant, it shows that daily is used as
both an adverb to describe receive and an adjective to describe a newspaper.
He woke up late and then had to take a hard test.
Late = adverb describing woke up; hard =adjective describing the test.
The late boy worked hard on the test.
Late=adjective describing the boy; hard = adverb describing worked.

Our casserole was smelling surprisingly badly. Wrong
Our casserole was smelling surprisingly bad. Correct
Answer: While “badly” is a correctly formed adverb, we need an adjective, not an adverb to tell us how the casserole “was smelling” → bad = predicate adjective not badly.

Prepositions show time and location.
Common Prepositions: About, above, across, after, against, along, amid, among, around, at, atop, Before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but, ;except, by, concerning
Down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, out, outside, Over, past, regarding, since, through, throughout, to, toward, under, underneath, until
Up, upon, with, within, without

Prepositional Phrases include AT LEAST a preposition + a noun / pronoun (him /her/ me/ them etc object form for personal pronouns)
Exs Give the cake to me! CORRECT Give the cake to I! INCORRECT
This mistake will sound incorrect.

Trickier ones involve I vs. me as part of a compound object with two pronouns or a noun and pronoun joined by an and.
Exs
He went to the mall with Sarah and I. wrong vs He went to the mall with Sarah and me. right
The report was given by him and I. INCORRECT vs The report was given by him and me. CORRECT

Remove the other part of the compound object to make the correct pronoun form more obvious
(ie. remove with Sarah below).
Ex: He went to the mall with Sarah and me. CORRECT

Remove the other part of the compound object to make the correct pronoun form more obvious
(ie. remove with Sarah below).
Ex: He went to the mall with Sarah and me. CORRECT

To hide grammar errors, the SAT and ACT add unnecessary prepositional phrases to sentences. Cross out the prepositional phrase to make sentences easier to analyze.

Ex: Find the underlined word error in this sentence:
Anne Tyler’s novel "The Accidental Tourist" features a character whose obsession with saving time and money are absurd, yet somehow plausible.

Now look with a prepositional phrase "whose obsession with saving time and money" crossed out:
Anne Tyler’s novel "The Accidental Tourist" features a character whose obsession with saving time and money are absurd, yet somehow plausible.

"Obsession are absurd” is incorrect.

Many can only be answered by how the words sound and there is no simple rule.

Some have a simple rule.

Prepositions in Idioms
Many prepositions have to be used in a certain way in English because they have always been said a certain way.
“She fell in love with him.” Ok
NOT “She fell towards love at him.”
“He is hard at work.” OK
NOT “He is hard in work.

Idioms and Diction



Many prepositions have to be used in a certain way in English because they have always been said a certain way.
“She fell in love with him.” Ok NOT “She fell towards love at him.”
“He is hard at work.” OK NOT “He is hard in work.

Tip: The SAT and ACT test parallel structure in sentences with conjunctions. When a conjunction links >= 2 things, they must have the same general structure.
Exs
Mike likes biking and to swim. INCORRECT
Mike likes biking and swimming. CORRECT
Mike likes to bike and to swim. CORRECT

She searched outside and under the stairs. INCORRECT
She searched outside the house and under the stairs. CORRECT

When linking 2 independent clauses, Period = Semicolon = Comma + And/ Fanboys
all grammatically function as a Stop Sign or period.

It is ", and" not "and ," commna comes before and

Coordinating conjunctions FANBOYS ( For/ And/ Nor/ But/ Or/ Yet/So) link words, phrases, and clauses,

If FANBOYS links two independent clauses (IC1 & IC2), you must use a comma before Fanboys.

IC1 + comma + fanboys + IC2

Then and Fanboys
While "then" is not a full Fanboys member, it counts as one when "then"= shortened form of ", and then" or",but then"

When then = ", and then" or likewise ", but then"--> use the same rules for any Fanboys.

Coordinating Conjunctions = 7 FANBOYS can join words, phrases, and clauses.
Exs
Joining words: John and Kim went to the store.
Note: With only two items in this list, there is no comma.

Joining phrases:
The mouse ran out the door and through the garden.
Note: As the 2nd phrase is an incomplete sentence and there are only 2 phrases, you can't use a comma before the word and.

The mouse ran out the door, through the garden, and into the neighbor's yard.
Note: As there are 3 or more phrases, you may use “, and” or “and” before the last one in the list .

Subordinating Conjunctions
Join dependent and independent clauses. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence on its own; it usually describes some aspect of the independent clause.

common subordinate conjunctions: After, although, because, even though, if, once, since, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, while

Use a comma between dependent and independent clauses ONLY if
-the dependent clause comes first or
-the dependent clause separates an independent clause into parts so one places commas around the conjunction.

Let
DC= dependent cause
IC=independent clause

subordinating conjunction + DC + Comma + IC.

IC + NO COMMA + subordinate conjunction + DC.

ICpart1 + COMMA + subordinate conjunction + COMMA + ICpart2.

Note: Exception- Sometimes people use a comma before because only if the preceding independent clause was negative.

Word pairs in conjunctions=Correlative Conjunctions must always be used in pairs.
These pairs are worth memorizing.
Both ... and
either ... or. Neither … nor
not only...but also
whether ... or
As … as

Idioms
Correct
Could/would/should/might + HAVE

Wrong
Could/would/should/might
+ OF

Here, usually if it sounds wrong, it is wrong

Personal Pronoun Case and verb agreement
If tested, the question will almost always be about plurals usually a proper name + a pronoun (Rob and me) or two pronouns (him and me).

If name + pronoun, cross out the proper name and answer by ear.

If two pronouns, cross out each pronoun in turn and answer by ear.

Know: prepositions like "between" should be followed by an object pronoun (me, her, him, them, us)

Word Pairs
When
(N)either…(n)or
Not only…but (also)
As…as

Always underline NOT, LEAST, and EXCEPT to be careful with answers.

Choose specific noun when other options are pronouns.

Avoid Wordiness and Redundantcy

Shorter= better = often correct option especially if multiple answers contain the same grammatically correct information

Transition questions test meaning more than grammar, so often all answers may be grammatically correct.

Transition questions: If there is an OMIT/DELETE option, check it FIRST because it will often be correct.

When two transitions have the same meaning (e.g. but/yet) and are both grammatically acceptable in context, both can automatically be eliminated as answers.

For transitions withinetween sentences or paragraphs, cross out the original transition to eliminate bias and determine the relationship between what's before and after the transition (e.g. continue, contradict, emphasize).

For transitions between paragraphs, the few sentences after the transition phrase are often more helpful than the end of the previous paragraph.

Context is key especially with transition questions.
If you’re not sure of the answer, read a sentence before and a sentence after.

Transitions: Insert/Delete sentence: Reread the paragraph and state the topic in your own words before checking the answer choices.

Keep sentence if it directly relates to that topic.

SEMICOLONS & PERIODS
Semicolon = Comma + Fanboys = Period

YOU can use a semicolon between independent clauses linked in meaning often with transitional words (however, thus, etc).

Independent Clause + Semi-Colon + Independent Clause

Unlike a semicolon, a colon can be followed by either a full sentence or a sentence fragment.
Independent Clause + Colon + Fragment or Independent Clause

COLONS
Colons are used to set up lists and explanation. Colons must always follow a full sentence that must logically set up the information that follows.
Incorrect: "I think" is a complete sentence, but you cannot then use a colon as it does not set up the information that follows.
Correct: "I like to think about many things" logically introduces an explanation of what those things are.

Unlike a semicolon, a colon can be followed by either a full sentence or a fragment.

Because colons can only come after an independent clause, "such as:” is always wrong.

Commas should be used:
1. Before Fanboys to join two full sentences.
Independent Clause 1 + Comma + FANBOYS + Independent Clause 2
Correct: London is an old city, but some parts of it are extremely modern.
Correct: London is a very old city, and it is very appealing to tourists as a result.


2. After a dependent clause (ones starting with because, when, until, unless, since, before) which cannot be full sentences) when it introduces an independent clause.
After introductory transition phrases or words ( however, thus, in the beginning, or as a result, rtc)


Dependent Clause or Transition Words+ Comma+ Independent Clause.


The reverse is usually not true so don't use a comma here.
Independent Clause + No Comma + Dependent clause or transition word like because or since

Note: no comma needed if dependent clauses afterwards.

But vs However
Although but and however have the same meaning, they are punctuated differently when used to join complete sentences:
Comma + but + No punctuation + complete clause
Period or semi-colon + however + comma + complete clause
Exs:
Correct: An increasing number of people at the company bike or take public transit to work, but many employees still prefer to drive.
Incorrect: An increasing number of people at the company bike or take public transit to work. But, many employees still prefer to drive.
Correct: An increasing number of people at the company bike or take public transit to work. However, many employees still prefer to drive.
Correct: An increasing number of people at the company bike or take public transit to work; however, many employees still prefer to drive.
Incorrect: An increasing number of people at the company bike or take public transit to work, however, many employees still prefer to drive.

Commas cont
Use to separate items in a list; in this case, unlike the comma before an and to join 2 sentences, the comma before the list word "and" in the list is optional.

Commas cont
Use commas to separate adjectives only if their order could be reversed.
Commas should not be used if the order cannot be reversed.
Correct: The groaning, rumbling train finally pulled into the station.
Groaning and rumbling can be reversed.

Incorrect: … contains some of the world’s most stunning, coral reefs.
Stunning and coral cannot be reversed.
Correct: … contains some of the world’s most stunning coral reefs.

Commas cont
Non-essential clauses and words are always surrounded by commas (or dashes or parentheses) unless the clause starts the sentence.

A non-essential clause (including names and titles with commas around them) could be crossed out with both the sentence's essential meaning and grammatical sense still intact.

When in the middle of a sentence, these non-essential clauses must be bracketed by 2 commas= 2 dashes = ().

You often must cross out non-essential clauses for several reasons:
1-If the sentence no longer makes sense-> it's WRONG.
2- Sometimes it adds little to the passage.
3- It may distract you from answering a hard noun-verb matching question.

Commas should NOT be used

1. Between adjectives and nouns
Incorrect: … most stunning coral, reefs.
Correct: … most stunning coral reefs.
Use commas to
Non-essential clauses and words are always surrounded by commas (or dashes or parentheses) unless the clause starts the sentence.
Incorrect: London which is an old city, has some extremely modern parts.
Incorrect: London, which is an old city has …
Correct: London, which is an old city, has …

Incorrect: London is an old city. It does however, have …
Correct: London is an old city. It does, however, have …

Commas should NOT be used
Between two full sentences (independent clauses) unless there is a COMMA+ FANBOYS otherwise, the result is known as a comma splice.
Tip-off: comma + pronoun (it, they, s/he, one, you, I)
Incorrect: London is a very old city, it has some extremely modern parts.

Commas should NOT be used
Between Subjects and Verbs
No comma should be used.
Incorrect: The oldest bridge in London, is Richmond Bridge, which was completed in 1777.

Commas and Prepositions
Prepositions = of, by, to, at, for, from, with, about, in, on, etc

Commas should NOT be used before or after a preposition or word "that" including when "that" could be used but does not appear.

No Comma + Preposition or "that" + No Comma

Incorrect: Frida Kahlo is among the most famous artists, of Latin American origin.

Incorrect: Frida Kahlo is among the most famous artists of, Latin ...

Incorrect: Frida Kahlo is among the most famous artists, of, Latin ...

Correct: Frida Kahlo is among the most famous artists of Latin ...

…

Commas should NOT be used
Before or after the word “that.” A comma should also not be used when that is optional and does not appear.

Incorrect: London is a city, that has many old buildings and monuments.
Incorrect: London is a city that, has many old buildings and monuments.
Correct: London is a city that has many old buildings and monuments.

Correct: The snow that is used to build an igloo must have …
Correct: The snow used to build an igloo must have…
Incorrect: The snow, used to build an igloo …

Commas should NOT be used
Before an open parenthesis

Incorrect: … the world’s most stunning coral reefs, (which are home to thousands of species of marine life), but …
Correct: … the world’s most stunning coral reefs (which are home to thousands of species of marine life), but …

Answers with weak, passive verbs like "being" "having" are usually wrong.

Being or Having = usually wrong.

Its’ isn't a word.

Its mean possesiveness
It's= It i

DASHES can be either like a comma or colon
1. Dashes = comma when
surrounding non-essential statements within a sentence.

2.Dashes = colon
before a list, an explanation, or to create a deliberate pause in a sentence.

APOSTROPHES
Make nouns possess or own something.
Add -'s to make certain nouns possessive:
1- singular nouns
2- plural nouns not ending in -s or -es.

To make a plural noun ending in -s or -es possessive, just add an apostrophe to the end -'

Plural and possessive nouns on the ACT tips/ shortcuts

1-Determine whether nouns are singular vs plural and possessive vs not possessive to limit answers.

2- Shortcut for possessives: Only nouns can possess other nouns -> use an apostrophe with the 1st noun if it’s followed by a 2nd noun but do not use an apostrophe if the 1st noun is followed by another part of speech.

Ex: potter’s clay vs A potter creates …

Pronouns:
To make pronouns possessive, add -s with NO APOSTROPHE

APOSTROPHES and Pronouns: Its versus It's
It’s = It is
Its = Possessive form
Its’ = WRONG

APOSTROPHES and pronouns
They’re vs. Their vs. There
They’re = they are
Their = possessive for they
There = a place

APOSTROPHES and pronouns

Who’s vs. Whose
Who’s = Who is

Who = only used for people

Whose = Possessive of Who AND can be used for people, places, and things/

Who vs Whom
Use who before a verb (who went, NOT whom went);

Use whom after a preposition (e.g. by whom, NOT by who).

Regular verbs

Singular verbs end in –s
-she reads
plural verbs do not end in –s
-they read

Parallel Structure
1. Keep all lists in the same format: noun, noun noun; -ING, -ING, -ING; verb, verb, verb even when there are only 2 terms joined by Fanboys.

When parallel structure involves infinitives (“to + verb”), it's unnecessary to repeat the “to” after the first verb.

Tip: The SAT and ACT test parallel structure in sentences with conjunctions. When a conjunction links >= 2 things, they must have the same general structure.
Exs
Mike likes biking and to swim. INCORRECT
Mike likes biking and swimming. CORRECT
Mike likes to bike and to swim. CORRECT

She searched outside and under the stairs. INCORRECT
She searched outside the house and under the stairs. CORRECT

Subject-Verb Agreement
Singular verbs end in -s (she walks) but plural verbs don't (they walk).

Tips:
If you found a verb but not its subject, find the first noun connected to the verb's clause.

The testers try to distract you from spotting subject-verb disagreement in several ways:
-a prepositional phrase or a non-essential clause between a subject & verb.
- singular subjects connected by “and".
-a verb comes before it's noun.
-tricky singular nouns
a: collective nouns (group, country, school, team, board, government, etc.)
b: each, every, and neither.
c: the number = singular whereas a number = plural.

- irregular verbs
a- to be's singular vs plural past and present forms
-past forms (was / were).
-present forms (is / are)
b- singular = lie vs plural = lies.

Pronoun Agreement
Match
-Singular nouns & pronouns
- Plural nouns & pronouns.

Singular = it, its, itself

Plural = they, them, their, themselves

The noun to which a pronoun refers (its antecedent or referent) may be in a prior sentence.

Verb Tense
1. Keep verb tense consistent within a paragraph.

Keep verb tenses consistent in one sentence.
Exs:
After Mary had eaten the soup, she eats the main course. Wrong as matches past perfect with present.
After Mary had eaten the soup, she ate the main course. correct
This matches past perfect with past, which shows progression of time within a sentence.

The olive oils we tasted yesterday are delicious.
Wrong: Mixes past tense (tasted) with present tense (are).
Correct: The olive oils we tasted yesterday were delicious.

Verb Tense
2. Most correct answers to verb questions use
a- the present tense or
present perfect tense.

Present perfect – has/have + verb. Describes an action that began in the past and that continues into the present.
Signaled by prepositions “for” and “since.”

b- the simple past tense (was, did, ran) or past perfect tense.

Past perfect – had + verb. When a sentence describes two completed actions in the past, the past perfect had + verb
can be used to describe the action that came first.
Most of the time, either the simple past or the past perfect are correct for past tense.
When the phrase “by the time” appears, however, the past perfect must be used.

More complex tenses (would have done, will have gone) are usually wrong.

Adjectives & Adverbs
Adjectives modify nouns: the good book, the boring class, the exciting trip.

Adverbs modify verbs and adjectives & usually end in -ly: the girl ran quickly, the top came off suddenly, the wind blew strongly

On the ACT, adjectives and adverbs are switched to trick students.
Incorrect: The monkey, a traditional Mexican symbol, appears frequent in Frida Kahlo’s paintings.
Correct: The monkey, a traditional Mexican symbol, appears frequently in Frida Kahlo’s paintings.

2. Remember that adverbs modify adjectives:
-LY
-no -LY
-two LYs in a row are usually wrong.

Incorrect: ... people born under the monkey sign are thought to be naturally curiously.
Correct: … monkey sign are thought to be naturally curious.

Adjective types
Adjectives formed from nouns/ certain pronouns
never use a comma between these type of adjectives & the noun it describes.
Ex: The basketball, player is tall. INCORRECT vs The basketball player is tall. CORRECT

Proper adjectives= formed from proper nouns/ must be capitalized.
Exs: I like Mexican food. He plays the French horn.

Demonstrative Adjectives this, that, these and those can double as pronoun
Exs as pronoun vs as adjective
That is the person I hate. vs. I hate that person.
These are my best friends. vs. My best friends are these people.

Possessive Adjectives - see section on Personal Pronouns my/ our/ your/ his// her/ their
Adjectives formed From Verbs = Participles
present participle verb + -ing The chirping birds woke him up.
past participle verb + -ed The burned chicken did not taste very good.

Adjectives as predicate adjectives. Discussed above

Rule: Use comma between adjectives If more than one adjective precedes a noun and their order is reversible. No comma if you cannot reverse them without a change in meaning or clarity.

Adverbs = words that describe or modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
Note: Use of adverbs vs. adjectives is tested.
Exs
He ran quickly down the street.
How did he run → Quickly =Adverb describing verb
She was very happy with the present.
She was what? Happy = adjective describes pronoun
How happy? Very = Adverb describes adjective
Stop talking so loudly!
Talking how? Loudly = adverb describes a verb; How loudly? so= adverb describing adverb

Many adverbs are formed by adding the ending -ly to an adjective
Exs careful → carefully easy → easily quiet → quietly

However, some adverbs are formed irregularly:
Adjective Adverb
Good well
Wrong wrong or wrongly

Good = adjective vs well = adverb will be tested: "good"must describe a noun, not a verb.

The following use the same words for adjectives and adverbs:
Fast, Hard, Late, Early, Daily, Straight, wrong

Comparatives and Superlatives
Comparative –use when comparing 2 things

“adjective + -ER” or “MORE + adjective” (better, stronger, more interesting)
When -ER is used, MORE should not be used as well.

Incorrect: Mexican folk art exerted a more stronger influence on Frida Kahlo’s paintings than…
Correct: Mexican folk art exerted a stronger influence on Frida Kahlo’s paintings than …

Superlative –must compare more than 2 things
“adjective + -EST” or “MOST + adjective” (best, strongest, most interesting)

When -EST is used, MOST should not be used as well.

One the next flashcard, we will be comparing Who, Which, and Whom
JUst to keep all of these in one place- this is a related sldie from above
APOSTROPHES and pronouns
Who’s vs. Whose
Who’s = Who is

Who = only used for people

Whose = Possessive of Who AND can be used for people, places, and things/

Who vs Whom are both only used for people while which refers to things
Use who before a verb (who went, NOT whom went);

Use whom after a preposition (e.g. by whom, NOT by who).

Who, Which, and Whom
Note: The exams test “who vs. whom” only in the forms outlined below.
1. Who, whom refers to people,
which refers to things.

Incorrect: Frida Kahlo was an artist which gained renown for her portraits
Correct: Frida Kahlo was an artist who gained renown for her portraits

2. “Whom” before a verb = wrong
Incorrect: Frida Kahlo was an artist whom earned renown for her portraits.

Correct: Frida Kahlo was an artist who earned renown for her portraits.

3. After a preposition, whom is right but who is wrong.
Incorrect: Frida Kahlo is a painter to who many artists owe their inspiration.

Correct: Frida Kahlo is a painter to whom many artists owe their inspiration.

Modification: Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers

Always place noun modifiers descriptive phrases near their nouns / subjects.

1. When a descriptive phrase begins a sentence without a subject, the subject must be placed
immediately afterward. If the subject is placed elsewhere, a dangling modifier is created.

2. Misplaced modifiers can occur anywhere in a sentence.