APHY101

Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts, whereas physiology is the study of the function of body parts

subatomic particles, atom, molecule, macromolecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

Water, food, oxygen, heat, pressure

Movement (internal or gross); Responsiveness (reaction to internal or external change); Growth (increase in size without change in shape); Reproduction (new organisms or new cells); Respiration (use of oxygen; removal of CO2); Digestion (breakdown of food); Absorption (movement of substances through membranes and into fluids); Circulation (movement within body fluids); Assimilation (changing nutrients into chemically different forms); Excretion (removal of metabolic wastes)

Body's maintenance of a stable environment

the body maintains homeostasis through a number of self-regulating control systems; examples are regulating body temperature and pressure sensitive receptors to regulate body pressure

Anything that takes up space and has mass (weight). It is composed of elements.

fundamental substance composed of chemically identical atoms

smallest particle of an element; basic unit of matter

An atom consists of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, with electrons in
orbit around the nucleus.

the nucleus contains protons and neutrons

subatomic particle that has a positive charge

subatomic particle that has no charge

subatomic particle that has a negative charge

number or protons in nucleus

number of protons plus number of neutrons

Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons to become stable with filled
outer shells

2 oppositely charged atoms form this bond when electrons are transferred from one atom to another atom

Weak attraction between positive end of one polar molecule and negative end of another polar molecule; formed between water molecules

When atoms gain or lose electrons, they become ions.

Two or more atoms or molecules are joined together

Larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones

Parts of molecules trade places

The starting materials of the reaction - the atoms, ions, or molecules

Substances formed at the end of the chemical reaction

influence the rates of chemical reactions

Electrolytes that release hydrogen ions in water

Electrolytes that release ions that combine with hydrogen ions in water

Acids and bases that react to form water and electrolytes

represents the concentration of hydrogen ions [H+] in solution

pH 7; indicates equal concentrations of H+and OH-

pH less than 7; indicates a greater concentration of H+

pH greater than 7; indicates a greater concentration of OH-

organic compounds have hydrogen and carbon; inorganic compounds do not

Dehydration reactions link monomers together into polymers by releasing water, and hydrolysis breaks polymers into monomers using a water molecule. Monomers are just single unit molecules and polymers are chains of monomers.

Carbohydrates provide energy for cellular activities. These molecules contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Primarily used to supply energy for cellular activity. Lipids are insoluble in water and include fats, phospholipids, and steroids.

Provide structure; energy sources; chemical messengers

Play vital role in metabolism

bonded amino acids held together with peptide bonds

Carry genes and control cell activities. Examples are RNA and DNA.

Used primarily for energy; most common lipid in the body

Can supply more energy than carbohydrates

Contain C, H, and O but less O than carbohydrates (C57H110O6)

Building blocks are 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids per molecule

Saturated and unsaturated

major component of cell membranes; large amounts in nervous system

2 fatty acid molecules and a phosphate group bound to a glycerol molecule

4 connected rings of carbon atoms; widely distributed in body; component of cell membrane; used to synthesize hormones; example includes cholesterol

building block of proteins

large molecules that increase the rates of chemical reactions without themselves undergoing any change

RNA (ribonucleic acid) functions in protein synthesis; DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) stores the molecular code in genes.

regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell; participates in signal transduction; and helps cells adhere to other cells

surrounded by an enveloper; composed of RNA and protein and is the site of ribosome production

consists of a clear liquid (cytosol), a supportive cytoskeleton, and networks of membranes and organelles

the liquid part of the cytoplasm in which various organelles are suspended

small, specialized structures in cells which operate like organs by carrying out specific tasks

controls the movement of substances in and out of cells; protects the cell from its surroundings

a double layer of phospholipids, with fatty acid tails turned inward

tiny spherical structures composed of protein and RNA; the site of protein synthesis

the manufacturing plant; responsible for synthesis of proteins and lipids for use inside and outside the cell

With ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is rough ER, and functions in protein synthesis. Without ribosomes, it is smooth ER, and functions in lipid synthesis.

UPS or FedEx; packages and modifies proteins for transport and export out of the cell

the powerhouses of the cell and
contain enzymes needed for aerobic respiration

"garbage disposals" of the cell and contain
digestive enzymes to break up old cell components and bacteria

contain enzymes that function in the synthesis of
bile acids, breakdown of lipids, degradation of rare biochemicals, and detoxification of alcohol

structure made up of two hollow cylinders called centrioles that function in the separation of chromosomes during cell division

motile extensions from the cell

long, thin, whip-like structures, with a core of microtubules, that enable some cells to move

small, membrane sacs that specialize in moving products into, out of, and within a cell

a double-layered porous membrane; separates the nuclear contents from the cytoplasm

regulate molecular traffic through the envelope and act like a rivet to hold the two unit membranes together

The site of ribosome production; composed of RNA and protein

It condenses into chromosomes during cell division; it is made of protein and DNA

the movement of molecules from an area of greater concentration to one of lesser concentration until equilibrium is reached

transport mechanism in which water molecules move through a selectively permeable membrane toward the solution with more impermeant solute

a process ions use to move down their concentration gradient across the plasma membrane

passive transport mechanism in which smaller molecules are forced through porous membranes from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure

a carrier molecule transports substances from regions of lower concentration to regions of higher concentration

active transport mechanism in which molecules or particles are conveyed by a vesicle in the cell

the transport of macromolecular cargo from one side of a cell to the other within a membrane-bounded carrier

simple diffusion
facilitated diffusion
osmosis
filtration

A solution with the same osmotic pressure as body fluids is called isotonic; one with higher osmotic pressure than body fluids is hypertonic; one with lower osmotic pressure is hypotonic.

the solution has a lower solute concentration than the cell so water moves into the cell causing plant cells to swell and animal cells to swell and burst

The solution has a higher solute concentration than the cell so water moves out of the cell and into the solution causing the cell to plasmolyze

interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis

Anabolism and Catabolism

Small molecules are built up into larger molecules, requiring energy

larger molecules are broken down into smaller molecules, releasing energy

When the enzyme and substrate are joined, the catalytic action of the enzyme converts the substrate to the product (or products) of the reaction.

Active sites on the enzyme combine with the substrate and a reaction occurs.

the alteration of a protein shape through some form of external stress (for example, by applying heat, acid or alkali), in such a way that it can no longer carry out its cellular function.

the primary source of energy for a cell

By breaking apart glucose molecules

Aerobic respiration is the process of producing cellular energy involving oxygen. Cells break down food in the mitochondria in a 2-step process. The first step is glycolysis, and the second is the citric acid cycle. It produces roughly 36 ATP.

The 6-carbon sugar glucose is broken down in the cytosol into 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate molecules.

Anaerobic respiration is the process of producing cellular energy without oxygen. Anaerobic respiration is a relatively fast reaction and produces 2 ATP. Anaerobic reactions occur in the cytoplasm.

The electron transport chain passes each electron along, gradually lowering the electron's energy level and transferring that energy to ATP synthase

Double-stranded DNA molecules twist to form a double helix consisting of "sugar-phosphate rails" and bases pair to form the "rungs."

(A) adenine
(T) thymine
(C) cytosine
(G) guanine

A T
C G

Single-stranded molecules, their nucleotides have ribose rather than deoxyribose sugar, and uracil rather than thymine. Functions in protein synthesis.

Building blocks of nucleic acid; consist of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and one of several nitrogenous bases

A) adenine
(T) uracil
(C) cytosine
(G) guanine

All of the RNA in a cell is made by DNA transcription, a process catalyzed by a class of enzymes called RNA polymerases.

During protein synthesis tRNA molecules bring the appropriate amino acids to align against an mRNA molecule temporarily held on a ribosome. The aligned amino acids join and the polypeptide that grows folds.

the process of copying the information encoded in DNA to produce RNA

The process of translating the series of codons of mRNA from the language of nucleic acids to the language of amino acids.

set of three nucleotides in a messenger RNA molecule corresponding to one of the 20 types of amino acids

During interphase, hydrogen bonds break between the base pairs.

The strands unwind and part, and free nucleotides come in and hydrogen bonds form between the new and the old.

Enzymes catalyze the base pair bonding and the knitting together of the sugar-phosphate backbone.

The rare distinctions in DNA sequence that affect how we look or feel. Mutations may be spontaneous (due to transient mispairing during DNA replication) or induced by exposure to certain chemicals or radiation.

layers or groups of similar cells with a common function

Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues

Covers body surface and organs, lines body cavities and hollow organs, composes glands, lacks blood vessels, cells readily divide, and cells are tightly packed; they function in protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, and sensory
reception.

Epithelial tissues are classified according to cell shape and number of cell layers

a single cell or a mass of cells; produces and secretes substances into ducts or into body fluids

single layer of thin, flattened cells; it functions in the exchange of gases in the lungs and lines blood and lymph vessels as well as body cavities

single layer of cube-shaped cells with
centrally located nuclei; it functions in secretion and absorption in the kidneys, and in secretion in
glands

a row of elongated cells whose nuclei
are all located near the basement membrane; it lines the uterus, stomach, and intestines where it protects underlying tissues, secretes digestive fluids, and absorbs nutrients

These cells appear layered due to the varying positions of their nuclei within the
row of cells, but are not truly layered; in the female reproductive tract, cilia on these cells aid in moving eggs through the oviducts to the uterus

layers of flattened cells that are designed to
protect underlying layers; it makes up the outer layer of skin, and lines the mouth, throat, vagina, and anal canal.

three layers of cuboidal cells lining a lumen of the
mammary glands, sweat glands, salivary glands, and pancreas

several layers of cells and is found in the vas deferens, part of the male urethra, and parts of the pharynx

designed to distend and return to its normal size, as it does in the lining of the urinary bladder

Bind, support protect, fill spaces, store fat, produce blood cells; The fibroblast is the most common cell type, and is a large, star-shaped cell that secretes fibers and is fixed into position; Strong collagenous fibers (white fibers), made of the protein collagen, add strength for holding body parts together

connective tissue designed to store fat; it is found beneath the skin, around joints, padding the kidneys and other internal organs, and in certain abdominal membranes

Densely packed collagenous fibers; very strong but lacks a good blood supply; found as part of tendons and ligaments.

rigid connective tissue that provides a supportive framework; lacks blood supply

Hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage

cartilage cell

bone cell

small channels through matrix; necessary for nutrient and wast exchange

skeletal, smooth, and cardiac

muscles attach to bones and can be controlled by conscious effort; also called voluntary muscle tissue; long and narrow cells

comprises walls of hollow internal organs like stomach, intestines, bladder; involuntary movements of internal organs

heart movements; involuntary

Neurons are highly specialized to conduct and transmit nerve impulses from one part of the body to another; the basic functional units of nervous tissue

Neuroglia brace and protect neurons, but are not capable of generating and transmitting nerve impulses.

outer layer of skin

inner layer of skin

It is also known as the hypodermis, and it's the inner most layer of skin; binds the skin to underlying organs and contains the blood vessels that supply the skin

melanocytes produce meanin

A bundle of smooth muscle cells attached to
each hair follicle.

associated with hair follicles and secrete
sebum that waterproofs and moisturizes the hair shafts

Eccrine sweat glands are most numerous and respond throughout to body temperature elevated by environmental heat or physical exertion.

apocrine glands produce sweat in response to emotional tension, heat and sexual activity; present from birth, activate during puberty

Epiphysis, Diaphysis, Medullary cavity, Periosteum

Expanded ends of bones that form joints with adjacent bones

Shaft of a long bone bone

The diaphysis contains a hollow medullary cavity that is lined with endosteum and filled with marrow.

tough layer of vascular connective tissue in long bone, covers the bone and is continuous with ligaments and tendons

tightly packed tissue that covers the wall of the diaphysis; there are no gaps

Lighter section of the bone often filled with red bone marrow. This is what epiphyses are composed of.

Chondrocytes enlarge and calcify, blood vessels invade the perichondrium, the perichondrium is converted into a periosteum, and the inner layer produces bone, osteoblasts replace calcified cartilage with spongy bone, osteoclasts create a narrow cavity.

A band of hyaline cartilage that forms between the two ossification centers; responsible for lengthening bones

It functions as the center for cell growth in the distal ends of long bones, it controls the growth of long bones.

Osteocytes- mature bone cells
Osteoblasts- bone-forming cells
Osteoclasts- cell that erodes bone

Supports the body, protects innards, production of blood cells, provide place for muscle attachment, store minerals and salts

skull, spine, rib cage

Upper limbs, Lower limbs, Shoulder girdle, Pelvic girdle

hematoma formation, fibrocartilage formation, bony callus formation, bone remodeling by osteoclasts to get back to its original shape

according to their shapes -- long, short, flat or irregular

most common and complex joint in skeletal system; allow free movement and are diarthrotic

it consists of articular cartilage, joint cavity, articular capsule, synovial membrane, and reinforcing ligaments

reduces wear on the bone ends and minimizes friction

consists of an outer layer of dense connective tissue that joins the periosteum, and an inner layer made up of synovial membrane

tough collagenous fibers that reinforce the joint capsule and help bind articular ends of bones

covers surfaces within the joint capsule

comes from the synovial membrane, egg white consistency, decreases friction from movement of joint; it lubricates the joint and nourishes the structures in the joint

cushion articulating surfaces and help distribute body weight

Flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane on the inside and make synovial fluid. Cushion and aid the movement of tendons that glide over bony parts of other tendons

plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball & socket

decreases the angle of the joint and brings 2 bones closer together

touching the opposing thumb with a finger

moving the part inferiorly like drooping the shoulders (opening the mouth, lowering the jaw)

lifting the body parts superiorly like shrugging your shoulders (closing the mouth, raising the jaw)

a non-angular movement in the transverse plane (moving the jaw forward)

moving the jaw backwards

turning the sole of the foot lateral

turning the sole of the foot medially

turning backwards or rotating the forearm laterally so the palm faces upward; this is the anatomical position and the radius and ulna are parallel in this position

(opposite of supination) the forearm rotates medially and the palm faces down. this is the relaxed position.

turning a bone on the long axis like shaking the head no

moving the distal end of a limb in a circle and the proximal end is stationary

increases the angle of the joint and the 2 bones are further apart

lifting the foot so the superior surfaces approaches the shin, like rocking on your heels

pointing the toes downward, like on your tip toes

moving a limb away from the midline or median

moving a limb towards the midline

sheets of connective tissue that separates an individual skeletal muscle from adjacent muscles and holds it in place

bands of dense connective tissue that attach skeletal muscles to bone

sheets of connective tissue which may attach muscle to bone or the coverings of adjacent muscles

myofibrils contain 2 kinds of protein filaments -- thick ones composed of myosin and thin ones composed of actin. the organization of these filaments produces the characteristics alternating light and dark striations of skeletal muscle fiber.

parallel, threadlike structures; bundles of protein in a muscle cell; play a fundamental role in muscle contraction; long bundles of contractile proteins found in the sarcoplasm

actin, troponin, tropomyosin

makes up thick filaments

plasma membrane of a muscle cell

distance between Z lines; extends from one Z line to the next and constitutes one contractile unit of a muscle

the cytoplasm found in muscle cells

endoplasmic reticulum of other cells

The sarcoplasmic reticulum and transverse tubules activate the muscle contraction mechanism when the fiber is stimulated.

According to the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction, the myosin crossbridge attaches to the binding site on the actin filament and bends, pulling on the actin filament; it then releases and attaches to the next binding site on the actin, pulling again

the connection between the motor neuron and muscle fiber

A neurotransmitter associated with voluntary movement, sleep and wakefulness. The neurotransmitter used at the skeletal muscle neuromuscular junction.

The immovable end of a muscle is the origin, while the movable end is the insertion; contraction pulls the insertion toward the origin.

Helper muscles are called synergists; opposing muscles are called antagonists

muscle doing majority of work

The brain and the spinal cord which occupy the dorsal body cavity and act as the integrating and command centers of the nervous system.

All of the peripheral nerves that connect all of the parts of the body with the CNS. These are the nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord.

maintains homeostasis of visceral activities without conscious effort.

division of PNS; communicates voluntary instructions to skeletal muscles

cell body with mitochondria, lysosomes, a Golgi apparatus, Nissl bodies containing rough endoplasmic reticulum, and neurofibrils.

Neurons can be grouped in two ways: on the basis of structural differences (bipolar, unipolar, and multipolar neurons) and by functional differences (sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons).

1. Microglial cells are small cells that phagocytize bacterial cells and cellular debris.

2. Oligodendrocytes form myelin sheaths in the brain and spinal cord.

3. Astrocytes are near blood vessels and support structures, aid in metabolism, and respond to brain injury by filling in spaces.

4. Ependyma cover the inside of ventricles and form choroid plexuses within the ventricles.

In a resting nerve cell the potential difference between the potassium ions inside the membrane and the sodium ions outside the membrane

-70 millivolts

A cell membrane is usually polarized, with an excess of negative charges on the inside of the membrane; polarization is important to the conduction of nerve impulses

When the membrane potential becomes less negative, the membrane is depolarized. If sufficiently strong depolarization occurs, a threshold potential is achieved as ion channels open. At threshold, action potential is reached.

At the same time, potassium channels open to allow potassium ions to leave the cell, the membrane becomes repolarized, and resting potential is reestablished.

At threshold potential, membrane permeability to sodium suddenly changes in the region of stimulation. As sodium channels open, sodium ions rush in, and the membrane potential changes and becomes depolarized. At the same time, potassium channels open to allow potassium ions to leave the cell, the membrane becomes repolarized, and resting potential is reestablished. This rapid sequence of events is the action potential.

when myelinated fibers conduct impulses from node of Ranvier to node of Ranvier; it is many times faster than conduction on unmyelinated
neurons

a junction between two neurons

membranes that are located between the bone and the soft tissues of the nervous system that protect the brain and spinal cord

dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater

four interconnected cavities in the cerebral hemispheres and brain stem; they are continuous with central canal of spinal cord and filled with CSF

Two main functions of spinal cord center for spinal reflexes, conduit for nerve impulses to and from the brain

conduct sensory impulses to the brain; comprised of axons

conduct motor impulses from the brain to motor neurons reaching muscles and glands; comprised of axons

named according to the bones they underlie and
include the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and insula.

Two deep longitudinal grooves (anterior median fissure and posterior median sulcus) divide the cord into right and left halves.

Increase the surface area of the brain

the puffs or ridges that cover the cerebral surface

shallow grooves on cerebral surface; divide each hemisphere into lobes

Higher brain functions including interpreting sensory impulses; initiating muscular movements; storing memory; reasoning, and intelligence

planning; initiation and inhibition of voluntary motion; cognitive function

receives sensory information; integrates information from vision, audition and somatic information

receives auditory information;
important for audition & language processing

receives visual information

masses of gray matter located deep within the cerebral hemispheres that relay motor impulses from the cerebrum and help to control motor activities by producing inhibitory dopamine

Processes sensory input; The diencephalon lies above the brain stem and contains the thalamus and hypothalamus.

Maintains homeostasis by regulating a variety of visceral activities and by linking the nervous and endocrine systems.

"Gateway to the sensory cortex." Receives all sensory impulses (except those associated with the sense of smell) and channels them to appropriate regions of the cortex for interpretation. The thalamus is not only a messenger but also an editor.

cerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum, brain stem

midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata

Contains bundles of myelinated nerve fibers that convey impulses to and from higher parts of the brain, and masses of gray matter that serve as reflex centers. It contains centers for auditory and visual reflexes.

transmits impulses between the brain and spinal cord, and contains centers that regulate the rate and depth of breathing

control visceral functions, including the cardiac center that controls heart rate, the vasomotor center for blood pressure control, and the respiratory center that works to control the rate and depth of breathing

communication with other parts of the CNS by tracts;
integrates sensory information concerning position of body parts;
coordinates skeletal muscle activity;
maintains posture

prepares the body for energy-expending, stressful, or emergency situations

most active under ordinary, restful conditions; it also counters the effects of the sympathetic division and restores the body to a resting state following a stressful experience

chemoreceptors, pain receptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors

the ability to ignore unimportant stimuli

free nerve endings, Meissner's corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles

Free ends of sensory nerve fibers in the epithelial tissues are associated with touch and pressure

flattened connective tissue sheaths surrounding two or more nerve fibers and are abundant in hairless areas that are very sensitive to touch, like the lips.

large structures of connective tissue and cells that detect deep pressure

They adapt quickly. Temperatures near 45C stimulate pain receptors; temperatures below
10C also stimulate pain receptors and produce a freezing sensation

sense odors; chemoreceptors (neurons) that respond to chemicals dissolved in liquids

Umami, Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter

taste cells are modified epithelial cells and divide continually

auricle and the external auditory meatus

The middle ear begins with the tympanic membrane, which is an air-filled space housing the auditory ossicles. Three auditory ossicles are the malleus, incus, and stapes.

cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibule

The tympanic membrane vibrates the malleus, which vibrates the incus, then the stapes.
The stapes vibrates the fluid inside the oval window of the inner ear.

help to maintain the position of the head when
the head and body are still


the organs of static equilibrium are located within the bony vestibule of the inner ear, inside the utricle and saccule (expansions of the membranous labyrinth). A macula, consisting of hair cells and supporting cells, lies inside the utricle and saccule

help to maintain balance when the head and
body suddenly move and rotate

The organs of dynamic equilibrium are called cristae ampullaris, and are located in the ampulla of each semicircular canal of the inner ear

contains photoreceptors

helps focus entering light rays

colored portion of the eye and adjusts the amount of light entering the eye

transparent structure of the eye that changes shape to focus light onto the retina

the white portion of the eye

the inner nervous tunic

Rods are more sensitive to light and function in dim light; they produce colorless vision. Cones provide sharp images in bright light and enable us to see in color.