1Sexual Media is portrayals or references to what?
Pubertal development
Romantic relationships
Body exposure or nudity
Sexual innuendo
Touching and kissing
Sexual intercourse
270 - 80% of mainstream shows on TV contain what category of sexual media?
non explicit sexual media ➝ much more talk about sex than depictions of sexual behaviour
3 80% of movies contain sexual content; 65% in G-rated movies.
There is evidence that the amount of sexual content in these media are...
decreasing
4What is Heterosexual Script?
Script for gendered sexual behaviour
5Example of Heterosexual Script: ____ pursue sex, _____ are pursued
Men pursue sex; sex as defining aspect of masculinity
Women are pursued; women as sex objects
6Discussions or portrayal of sexual responsibility or risks in media is rare. What is rarely mentioned in relation to sexual responsibility or risks?
Rare mention of condoms, or risks of sex (STI, baby)
7The most common consequence of sex shown in media are what type, and what consequences are rarely shown?
ost common consequences are emotional/social; rarely any physical consequences
8What is sexual socialization?
The process by which our sexual knowledge, values, attitudes, behaviours develop
9Sexual socialization is influenced by more than just biology. It is impacted by...
impacted by parents, peers, culture, media
10"Teens think media impacts sexual development for others, but not themselves" is what effect?
Third Person Effect
11What is sexualization?
Taking something and make it sexual
12Which of the following IS NOT an example of sexualization?
- A person is made into a thing for the sexual use of others; sexual objectification
- A person's value is determined by their performance in sex
- A person is held to a standard that equates attractiveness with being sexy
- A person who looks for sexual pleasure in everything
- A person’s value comes from their sexual appealehaviour
- Sexuality inappropriately imposed upon someone
13What is the cultivation theory in relation to media and sex?
Seeing same themes, stories, content in media will be adapted/think of them as reality
Long term, repeated consumption of media depictions of sexual themes will shape attitudes and beliefs
14According to cultivation theory, if you see lots of teens have sex on TV, what would you believe?
Lots of teens are having sex
15What is the social cognitive theory in relation to media and sex?
Media consumers will observe and model sexual behavior
16TRUE OR FALSE: Characters rewarded for sexual behaviour will be more likely modelled
True
17More likely to model individuals that...
that we identify with
that have positive traits
18What is the sexual scripts theory?
Sexuality and sexual behaviours are determined by scripts that are used to organize and understand sexual encounters
19What are the 3 levels of Sexual Scripts?
Cultural (norms and values)
Interpersonal (navigating sex interpersonally)
Intrapsychic (personal fantasies)
20Where do we learn cultural scripts from?
From parents, peers, media (stories we see)
21What are heterosexual scripts and how are they formed?
men pursue women, women are pursued
formed from cultural values/expectations
22Purity script says sex is acceptable only within...
only within marriage
23Interpersonal scripts use what to guide them?
cultural scripts
24Intrapsychic scripts are personal fantasies. If internalizing and fantisizing the cultural script of purity, what would their beliefs about sex be?
they would want to wait until marriage to have sex
25Conflicts between scripts can come up. What is an example of this between a cultural/purity script and an interpsychic script?
Cultural script of sex only after message, but interpsychic script of wanting to have sex now
26The Media Practice Model assumes media use is...
Media use is active
27The Media Practice Model posits that ________________ plays a role in what effect media has
the media user
28In relation to sexual cognitions, consuming greater amounts of sexual media is correlated with...
- Belief of women as sex objects
- Belief that more friends are engaging in sexual behaviours
- More permissiveness towards sex; positive attitudes towards sex outside of committed relationships
- Pursuing sex
- Greater education of sexual consequences
- Consuming more sexual media later
- Expectations of fewer negative consequences associated with sex, belief fewer people using contraception
29Sexual media can be a source of education about sex. Collins says that regular viewers of Friends learned about what?
Learned about condoms, condom effectiveness
30In relation to sexual behaviour, consuming greater amounts of sexual media is correlated with
Greater likelihood of having engaged in sexual behaviours
More sexual partners
Having started sexual behaviour at earlier age
31Brown: grade 7-8 (black and white) measured on sexual media diet – TV, music, movies, magazines) → analyzed by broad definition of sexual content (kissing, holding hands
2 years later… ask kids about sexual behaviours (non-sex sexual behaviours; age of first sexual intercourse)
Amount of sexual media diet seemed to strongly predict what?
Amount of sexual media diet seemed to strongly predict sexual behaviour/intercourse/age of sexual intercourse
32Factors that matter: Race. Sexual media has less/no impact on sexual youth for which race compared to white youth?
black youth
33Factors that matter: Age. There is more of an impact on sexual behaviours when?
In early adolescence vs late adolescence/young adulthood
34Limitations and issues of sexual media research: What is the issue with the usage of correlational and longitudinal studies?
It is difficult to establish causation
35Limitations and issues of sexual media research: What are the ethical issues of this?
Can't show sexual content to young kids
36Limitations and issues of sexual media research: Participants may not be... in responses
truthful
37There is a focus on what type of outcomes in Sexual Media Research?
negative outcomes, not many research on positive outcomes
38Historically, little representation for queers. If there are, normally stereotyped and represented as...
Sexless relationship OR oversexed representation
39Over last 10-20 years, generally been movement towards greater numbers and more varied representations. What was the change?
More media made for queer people, more queer representation in wide representation of media
40Queer consumers often report getting most info about sex and sexuality from...
From the media
41Most queer media research is focused on the impacts on what?
identity/self concept and well being
42There are positive links to dentity affirmation and wellbeing on queer consumers from queer media, such as "Seeing character like me/have sexuality like me makes me feel better"
What do effects depend on?
Effects depend on quality/characteristics of representation
43There is little to no research on impacts of sexual cognitionsehaviours. What are examples sexual cognitions and behaviours?
How much intercouse/when, amount of use of sexual media
44How does queer media effect straight consumers?
May be linked to more accepting views of same-sex relationships
Varies on if person already had interactions with queer individuals (exposure very strongly correlates with better acceptance)
45What is intergroup contact theory?
Stereotyping and discrimination can be reduced when individuals from different social groups have contact
46What is the parasocial contact hypothesis?
media consumers can form relationships with media characters, which may have similar effects on stereotyping and discrimination
47"When we are exposed to people from other groups/have relationships with other groups, we tend to reduce our stereotypes and discrimination about those groups" is which theory/hypothesis?
Intergroup contact theory
48Sexually explicit media is direct depictions of sexual activities. What does this definition include/mean?
Genetials are unconcealed
Penetration may be visible
49There are sizable proportions of youth that access or are exposed to pornography. What can skew these statistics when talking about the high prevalence of exposure to pornography?
There are high levels of unintentional exposure to porn (accidentally stumbling upon it)
50Pornography use is more prevalent in...
Menoys
Pubertally more advanced
Individuals high in sensation seeking
Weak or troubled family relationships
51Which of the following are negative impacts of pornography?
- A "rot" of the brain
- Increased likelihood of risky sexual activity
- Sexual aggression/violence (perhaps just in violent pornography)
- Mixed evidence: risk sex, sexual dysfunction
- Gender stereotyped sexual beliefs
- Greater likelihood of sexual behaviour, casual sex
- More permissive sexual attitudes
- More body dissatisfaction
52True or False: Porn Addiction is a real and very serious addiction
False
53Porn Addiction is a reported feeling of addiction to porn. What are examples of this?
Feeling out of control or compulsive in their use
Associated negative consequences as the result of problematic use
- Relationship issues, distress
54Why is perceived porn addiction not considered an actual addiction (like alcohol or nicotine)
High use not always found to be problematic
Mixed data on neural activity to addiction to porn (unclear if porn addiction have similar brain effects to other addictions)
Mixed data on whether increased need for more/extreme content increases over time (tolerance build up)
55Porn addiction normally called problematic pornography use. What are the 2 pathways theorized to cause problematic porn use?
Dysregulation in porn use (cannot stay away, need it all the time)
Moral incongruence
56What is moral incongruence?
Moral disapproval of porn; normally from religion
57What are the positives of sexually explicit media?
Porn as source of info about sex
Recognizing/confirming sexual identity
58Kotiunga et al found that using pornography leads to lower sexual body self esteem, and higher sexual self efficacy.
There is a difference for cisgender girls and boys though. What are the differences between the 2 genders when comparing sexual self esteem and sexual anxiety?
Cisgender girls - higher sexual self esteem, lower sexual anxiety
Cisgender boys - lower sexual self esteem, higher sexual anxiety
59More negative associations with individuals reporting greater pornography-related sexual expectancies and generalizations. In other words, the more people want to be like what they see in porn, the worse associations between sexual self concept.
What are the pornography-related sexual expectancies and generalizations?
Expectations = expectations that my sex life will be like pornography
Generalize sex to be like pornography
60Body image is an individual's perceptions and evaluations of their body. Which age group is most effected?
Adolescents
61Body image is appearance based. At what age do children start to show body image dissatisfaction?
6
62The average magazine model is thinner than 98% of North American women, this is trending towards...
- Even more thin models
- More average weights
63There is an overrepresentation of thinness and an underrepresentation of fatness within screen media. What is the distribution of bodies in the US population and screen media characters?
Population of US more overweight, while screen media characters more underweight.
64Fatness is shown as a negative. What is the proof of this within media?
Fat characters more likely to be insulted, insults more likely to be followed by laughter
Fat characters depicted with fewer romances, fewer friends, having less sex, having fewer leadership roles
65Hargreaves & Tiggeman studied Grade 8-12 teens split into 2 groups, which watched:
1. Watched thin/muscular ideal commercial
2. Watched non-appearance focused commercial
Afterwards, they asked groups “how dissatisfied are you with your current appearance?” → scale from none to very much
How did girls and boys rate themselves?
Girls rated themselves as less satisfied with their body
Boys had no difference between condition
66Most research on media and body image examines only girls/women, and is very focused on cisgender individuals. Research of what individuals are lacking?
Lack of research on media effects for body image in non-binary and trans individuals is a big gap in knowledge
67What are the limitations of experimental methodologies on body image?
Less representative of real world conditions
Participants may be aware of study objectives; demand characteristics
68Becker examined Fijian teenage girls before and 3 years after the arrival of Western TV. What were the findings?
Observed increase in disordered eating and dieting
In interviews, 77% reported that TV had influenced their body image
69Correlational and meta-analytic studies also generally support the relationship between (idealized) media consumption and body dissatisfaction.
This depends on the context: Why is there more of an impact for non commercial content?
No one wants to watch or cares about commercial media
70What are the mechanisms that cause media to affect body image?
Social learning → observation of better/more wanted body
Idealized body = more rewards
Wishful identification → want to be like character who happens to have good body
71Internalizationn of thin ideals says that society's message is that being thin and/or muscular is better (transmitted via media). If you see this message, what happens?
Believes/internalizes this idea; Plays into how we want our own body to be
72Failure to live to this standard of thin ideal leads to what?
Greater body dissatisfaction (exercise → live longer though)
73According to the social comparison theory, humans have the instict to compare with others. Our self evaluation (negative or positive thinking of self) is relative to our evaluation of others (comparing self with your evaluations of others).
With this definition in mind, what is upward and downward comparisons (with others)?
Upward comparison - compare with someone seen as better (might feel worse about self)
Downward comparison - compared to someone seen as worse (might feel better about self)
74According to the social comparison theory, humans have the instict to compare with others. Our self evaluation (negative or positive thinking of self) is relative to our evaluation of others (comparing self with your evaluations of others).
Therefore, it is theorized that we will evaluate ourselves reactively to those seen via media.
What type of comparison is more likely in comparing yourself to media figures?
More likely upward comparison to media
75What are the 3 main influences on body image according to Tripartite theory?
Media
Family
Peers
76What is the objectification theory and where is it most prevalent
Presenting bodies as objects, particuarly prevalent in western society
77What is sexual objectification
bodies as objects for sex
78In the objectification theory, bodies are viewed from...
an observers perspective (bodies have no agency, only viewed as a commodity)
79What perspective do individuals who self objectify adopt?
individual comes to adopt the perspective that value is based on physical appearance
80All bodies can be objectified, but more common for...
Womenirls
Racialized individuals
Queer
Other marginalized identities
81The same body ideals appear in social media and tradictional media. Why might there be differences between these 2 types of media? (JUST READ THIS ONE PROBABLY)
Users are creators as well as recipients → view and edit our own images, in addition to seeing images of others
Content comes from peers as well as mass media sources → feels more relatable and real
Can actively engage with content; give and get quantifiable feedback
Personalized content → algorithm
Can access anywhere, anytime, in large amounts
Mix of commercial and non commercial content; commercial content unclear
- Ads have less influence
More democratic, diverse depictions
82TRUE OR FALSE: There is little research that suggests there is overall small link between media use and body dissatisfaction
83Factors that Matter in body disattisfaction from social media: Age - Who is most negatively impacted?
Younger adolescents most negatively impacted
84Factors that Matter in body disattisfaction from social media: Gender - There is a similar relationship between social media and body image in both girls and boys, but in traditional media studies, girls are more dissatisfied than boys with their body. Why is this?
Traditional media research done decades ago, social media research done recently
85True or False: More consistent findings on impact of social media on body dissatisfaction from image based platforms
86More time spent editing photos leads to body dissatisfaction. Why?
body is object for appeal of others (editing self to make it more appealing) → increased self objectification
87What condition makes manipulated photos on social media increase your body dissatisfaction?
If you believe the manipulated photos are real
88In the UK, France, Terrorist Jew Land, and Norway, for images that are digitally distorted, disclaimer labels are required/ What effects did they have on reducing body dissatisfaction and social comparison?
Research suggests no effect of disclaimers on reducing body dissatisfaction
Disclaimers may even increase social comparison
89What is body neutrality
Accepting your body as it is; not appearance based
90What is body positivity?
All body shapes are positive
91Kilby and Mickelson exposed adult womenender diverse participants to 1 of 4 compliations of TikTok videos
1. Body positive content (love body at all size, all bodies amazing)
2. Body neutrality content (what your body can do for you)
3. Weight stigma content (thin ideal)
4. Control (travel content)
Then, they were measured on mood, body dissatisfaction, self objectification, etc.
What were the results?
The weight stigma content group felt worse about their body and had more self objectification
After all other groups (body positive, body neutrality, and travel) had less body dissatisfaction and self objectification
92What are the advantages of body positive content compared to body neutral content?
More advantages for body positive content on increasing positive mood → particularly for participants with mid-sized bodies
93What are the advantages of body neutral content compared to body positive content?
More advantages for body neutral content on reducing self objectification
More advantages for body neutral content for transgender and gender diverse participants
94What are the limitations of the Kilby and Mickelson study?
Easy to tell what the study is about
How applicable is this? People do not interact with TikTok the way the study does
Feed/algorithm evolves
Body positivityody neutrality effects didn’t improve more than the control (travel)
- Is there even anything unique to body neutral/positive content?
95At what age do children appear to identify gender?
2
96What age does a deeper understanding of gender as intenral and stable emerge?
7-9
97Picture books are historically heavily stereotyped. How does these old historical books effect how chidren/people learn about gender?
Books have a longer trail and stick around longer, classic books more likely to be shown or reccomended to younger kids
98Modern picture books still contain stereotypes, less representation of girls/women (every 1 girl character, 1.3 male character). What are these stereotypes?
Males more involved in rescuing, females getting rescued
Males more aggressive/assertive, females more passive
99Books for older children/teens also often use stereotyped representations, such as benevolent sexism.
What is benevolent sexism?
Women in passive traditional roles are idealized
100In TV and movies, male and female characters are often portrayed in stereotyped ways. What are examples of the stereotypes that female characters are portrayed as?
More fearful
More often at home/family oriented
Better liked
Polite
Focused on appearce/sex appeal
101In TV and movies, male and female characters are often portrayed in stereotyped ways. What are examples of the stereotypes that male characters are portrayed as?z
Pursue sex
More aggresive
Working more often
incompetent at home/family
102True or False: More likely to see men working in STEM than womenanaly
103Semantic content in language (co-occurance of male/female words with words relating to agency (power) and communion (family)) was analyzed
What were the findings?
Overall more male words used, but difference lowering over time
Gender stereotyped words related to gender (power to man, family to women) also getting less and less
104What words seemingly increase gender stereotypes, with male words more related to that word?
words related to friends
105Syntactic content in language (whether male or female words are more likely to serve as the grammatical agent in sentences) was analyzed
What were the findings?
Gender differences did not change over time (more likely to see gendered words in agent role, but difference between male and female word frequency is the same)
106What is "he" fed the cat and "she" fed the cat an example of?
Syntactic content
107In video games, Female representation has increased dramatically, but male characters still outnumber female characters.
Still, most female characters are more likely to be prpesented as...
Bystanders, needing to be rescued, and/or nurturing
108There tends to be strong gender stereotypes on Online Media. How does searching/search results illustrate this?
Searching for plumber, police chief will show more men
Searching for cook, artist, hair stylist will show more women
109How do these search result stereotypes compare to real life census data?
Images have stronger stereotype than census data
110What are the gendered themes in media of men and women?
Men as serious, powerful, aggressive; women as emotional and passive
Women’s place is in the home; men as working (especially in STEM)
Gendered ideas of body and sex
111There is a very small but increasing representation of gender diverse people within media. What were these people historically represented as in media?
Representation as deviant, oversexualized, victimized, unstable
112Cultivation theory says that over time, media exposure shifts our understanding of reality. What would happen if every time we look for a photo of a scientist, a man is shown?
Believe that most/all scientists are men
113Social cognitive theory says that people observe media models to learn normative and valued behaviour. If most girl characters are more passive, what happens?
Girls internalize that being passive is just how girls act
114Giaccardi found that university students who used more TV agree with statements such as "It's important for a guy to act like nothing is wrong, evne when something is bothering him". What does this mean?
Overall more TV usage = more endoresment of traditional gender stereotype beliefs
115Using which type of media shows stronger correlation with endoresment of traditional gender stereotypes?
Stronger for soap operas, talk shows, music videos, reality TV, men’s sports, violent video games
116Gabbiadini assigned 15-20 year olds to play either a violent/sexist game, a violent game, or a non-violent/sexist game, then asked them questions about masculine beliefs, such as "Boys should be encouraged to find a means of demonstrating physical prowess" and "It is ok for a guy to use any means to get a girl to have sex"
What was neded to find an increase/endorse masculine beliefs?
Need gender/sexist themes
117What factors that were previously discussed in Media and Violence increased masculine beliefs?
identification with characters and perceived realism
1186-9 year old girls watch 1 of 2 movie scripts
Shows girls in gender stereotyped roles (particularly in science and tech – complaining about doing math)
Shows girls playing with robots, tech, etc
Girls were then asked to draw a scientist. What was the outcome of the drawings between the 2 conditions?
Draw a scientist task → stereotyped condition girls more likely to draw male scientist (30% drew male scientist; in condition where girls were scientists → 75% drew female scientist)
119Coyne et al. Looking at princess culture and media, and the impacts on children
Longitudinal studies starting with 3-6 year olds measuring on disney princess engagement. What is the measurement operationalized by?
How often viewing princess movies, how often playing with princess toys, how often you wear disney princess costumes
120at 3-6 years, there was a correlation between disney princess engagenment and feminine gender-stereotypical behaviour. What did it predict 1 year later?
for both boys and girls who consumed princess media, they were more likely a year later to engage in more feminin gender stereotyped behaviour
121Engagement with princess culture predicted gender stereotypes particularly when there was active mediation from parents
What is active mediation?
Parents discussing media content with children
122In a recent study that follow up'ed on the original Coyne study that showed 5 years later (10 years old), consumption of Disney Princess Culture was linked to...
linked to less adherence of gender stereotypes in adolescence
123Girls/women with stronger adherence to traditional feminin ideaologies correlates with/predicts what?
More depressive symptoms, lower self-esteem, lower self-efficacy
124Adolescent boys who consume more mainstream media leads to greater endorsement of ________ roles. What does this lead to in terms of mental health?
greater endorsment of gender roles (boys need to act certain way)
leads to poorer mental health
125What is race based on?
physical traits typically perceived to be shared between members of a group
126What is ethnicity based on?
cultural identity and traditions typically shared between members of a group
127Children are aware of and respond to race/ethnicity from early in development: what is proof of this within 3-4 year olds?
can sort individuals according to race/ethnicity
128TRUE OR FALSE: Childrens media tends to be more diverse than adult oriented media
129Historically, black characters dominated by negative archetypes (Subservient, lazy, poor, angry, sexualized, etc). Beginning in the 1960s, they were represented more "idyllically". What does this mean and what was the issue with this representation?
represented as successful, rich, lived in good housing, etc
issue was that a vast majority of black people were not living in these glamorous conditions
130True or False: Modern black characters have little to no stereotypes
131How are Latino/a characters often portrayed in regards to negative stereotypes?
Sex objects
Low status jobs
Lack of intelligence
Associated with crime (criminals or cops)
132Despite low representation, Asian characters are still often portrayed with the Model Minority stereotype. What does this mean?
Linked with intelligence, strong family values, strong work ethic, passive
133There is very very very low representation of indigenous individuals. Many depictions of indigenous individuals are historical depictions. What does this mean?
Representing the past, not current/modern representation of indigenous people
134How does most indigenous portrayals being historical impact the way people think about them?
The native people no longer exist
135Middle Eastern men are often depicted as...
terrorists
136True or False: Most muslim characters are men
137How is race represented in online media? Do these same stereotypes show up?
Racial discrimination, harassment, microaggressions online
Doing race - spaces to learn about expectations for our racial group, and perform these expectations with others
138How do algorithms effect how race is represented in online media
Can serve us different types of racial content based on interactions
139How does cultivataion theory shift our understanding of reality to the idea that all asians are good at math?
Sees many asians be good at math on media → all asians are good at math
140How does social cognitive theory teach us how people of our race should act?
Observing tons of different races on media → that is how those races act IRL or how you are supposed to act
141In white consumers, there is some evidence that media consumption may impact attitudes towards racial outgroups (non-white)
Exposure to negative stereotyped portrayals leads to...
Exposure to negative stereotyped portrayals → more negative judgment of individuals within that group
142In white consumers, there is some evidence that media consumption may impact attitudes towards racial outgroups (non-white)
Exposure to positive stereotyped portrayals leads to...
Exposure to positive portrayals → more favourable attitudes, more sympathetic responses to discrimination
143True or False: Early childhood is an easy time to shift attitudes/stereotpes
144at what stage/age are children’s attitudes and stereotypes be more malleable to certain ages?
middle childhood/adolescents
145In individuals from marginalized groups, exposure to media stereotypes often associated with Lower self esteem. How is this represented in Indigenous people?
Media contains (positive or negative) traits, but the traits shown are very narrow, not true representation of their life → lower self esteem
146Shafer and Rivadenerya researched the impact of TV stereotypes on self esteem of Latinos. They wondered if the impact of the sterotyped media on self esteem is different repending on Ethnic Racial Identity. What is ethnic racial identity?
A person’s thoughts or feelings about their race/ethnicity
147What does Ethnic Racial Identity predict?
Predicts better grades, less depressive symptoms, less stress from discrimination
1482 groups were shown 2 different portrayals (stereotyped & non stereotyped). ERI centrality and self esteem was measured. It was found that high ERI = highest self esteem
What were the findings related to exposure to stereotyped content within people with High and Low ERI?
Exposure to stereotyped content hits people with High ERI the most (highest effect on their self esteem)
Low ERI → exposure to stereotyped content does not really affect their self esteem, may even raise it
149What is Stereotype Threat/Social Identity THreat
Social identity (shaped by group memberships) → confronted with negative stereotypes about your group → leads to negative impacts (negative emotions, stress response, worry of conforming to negative view → lower self esteem
150The study focuses on centrality and how it impacts self esteem. What is centrality?
how much ethnic racial identity is central to your own identity
151What was the main research question of Brown et al. (2006)?
Whether exposure to sexual content in TV, movies, music, and magazines during early adolescence predicts sexual behavior in middle adolescence, with attention to racial differences
152What is “sexual media diet” (SMD)?
A measure combining frequency of media use with the proportion of sexual content in the specific media consumed
153How was sexual behavior measured in the Brown et al. study?
Precoital behaviors (kissing, touching, oral sex) and initiation of sexual intercourse (age, yes/no)
154What were the main findings for white adolescents?
High SMD predicted earlier and more frequent sexual activity
Whites in the top quintile were 2.2× more likely to have had sex by age 16 than those in the lowest quintile
155What were the main findings for black adolescents?
SMD effects disappeared after controlling for parental disapproval and peer norms
Peers and parents were stronger predictors for sexual activity than media
156What were the strongest protective factors against early sex?
Parental disapproval, good grades, religiosity (especially for whites)
157What was the strongest risk factor across groups?
Perceived permissive peer sexual norms
158What was the main research question of Kotiuga et al. (2025)?
How pornography use relates to adolescents’ sexual self-concept, including differences between users and non-users, and the role of expectancieseneralizations
159What are the four dimensions of sexual self-concept studied?
Sexual self-esteem, sexual body-esteem, sexual self-efficacy, and sexual anxiety
160What % of adolescents reported pornography use, and at what average age did they start?
68% reported use; average age of first use = 11.9 years
161How did pornography use affect sexual body-esteem and self-efficacy across genders?
Users had lower body-esteem but higher self-efficacy than non-users
162What gender-specific effects were found for sexual self-esteem?
Girls who used porn had higher self-esteem; boys had lower self-esteem
163What gender-specific effects were found for sexual anxiety?
Girls who used porn had lower anxiety; boys had higher anxiety.
164What was the effect of pornography use frequency on sexual self-concept?
Weakly associated with higher sexual anxiety
165What were the effects of pornography-related expectancies?
Higher expectancies → higher sexual anxiety and lower body-esteem
166What were the effects of pornography-related generalizations?
Higher generalizations → lower sexual self-efficacy
167What was the main aim of Hargreaves & Tiggemann (2004)?
To test the immediate effects of thin-ideal and muscular-ideal media images on adolescent body image, mood, and appearance comparison, comparing girls and boys
168Which theoretical framework explains the mechanism of media effects on body image?
Social comparison theory—exposure to idealized models prompts upward comparison, leading to dissatisfaction
169What are the two key individual difference moderators studied?
Trait social comparison and appearance schematicity (importance of appearance in life), combined into appearance investment
170How did thin-ideal commercials affect girls?
Increased body dissatisfaction and negative mood compared to control.
171How did muscular-ideal commercials affect boys?
No significant increase in body dissatisfaction compared to control
172How did idealized commercials affect mood across genders?
Increased negative mood for both girls and boys, with girls reporting higher overall negative affect.
173Who engaged in more appearance comparison, girls or boys?
Girls, especially in the idealized condition
174What is appearance investment?
Allocation of resources towards ones appearance
175What role did appearance investment play?
High-investment adolescents showed greater comparison and dissatisfaction, especially when exposed to idealized commercials.
176What was the main aim of Kilby & Mickelson (2025)?
To test how body-positive, body-neutral, weight-stigmatizing, and control TikTok content affect body image and mood
177What are the key differences between body positivity and body neutrality?
- BoPo: Focuses on loving/embracing appearance, flaws and all.
- Neutrality: Moves away from appearance judgments, emphasizes functional appreciation.
178What outcomes improved after exposure to BoPo and neutrality content compared to weight-stigmatizing?
Functional appreciation (appreciation, respect of what your body is capable of) ↑, body dissatisfaction ↓, negative affect ↓, positive appearance thoughts ↑
179Which approach uniquely reduced self-objectification?
Body neutrality
180Which approach uniquely enhanced positive affect?
Body positivity
181What effect did weight-stigmatizing TikTok content have?
Increased body dissatisfaction and worsened mood
182What is functional appreciation?
Valuing the body for what it can do (movement, expression, connection) rather than how it looks
183Why might body neutrality be especially relevant for transgender individuals?
It avoids appearance focus, may feel more attainable than unconditional self-love, and can reduce dysphoria-related distress
184What was the main research question of Coyne et al. (2016)?
Whether Disney Princess engagement predicts changes in gender stereotypes, body esteem, and prosocial behavior in young children.
185Which theory guided the study’s predictions?
Social Cognitive Theory of Gender Development
186What are the two main mechanisms of Social Cognitive Theory relevant here?
Modeling (imitating salient, rewarded models) and direct tuition (reinforcement by parents/peers).
187What were the actual findings on gender-stereotypical behavior?
Princess engagement predicted more female-stereotypical behavior for both boys and girls, even after 1 year.
188Did princess engagement affect body esteem in girls?
No significant effect; girls’ body esteem was unaffected
189How did princess engagement affect boys’ body esteem?
With high parental mediation, boys showed improved body esteem.
190What were the findings on prosocial behavior?
No effect for girls; for boys, princess engagement + high parental mediation predicted more prosocial behavior.
191What role did parental mediation play?
It amplified effects—reinforcing stereotypes for both genders, but also boosting positive outcomes (body esteem, prosociality) for boys.
192What was the main research question of Shafer & Rivadeneyra (2022)?
How stereotypical TV portrayals of Latino/as affect state self-esteem in emerging adults, and whether ethnic-racial identity moderates this effectHow stereotypical TV portrayals of Latino/as affect state self-esteem in emerging adults, and whether ethnic-racial identity moderates this effect
193Which theory guided the study?
Stereotype Threat Theory (Steele, 1997).
194What is ethnic-racial identity centrality?
The extent to which one’s ethnicity is central to their self-concept.
195What were the two experimental conditions?
Exposure to stereotypical clips vs. neutral clips of Latino/a characters.
196What were the three domains of state self-esteem measured?
Social, performance, and appearance self-esteem.
197What were the actual findings for social self-esteem?
High ethnic-racial identity → higher social self-esteem in neutral condition, but lower social self-esteem in stereotype condition.
198Were performance and appearance self-esteem affected?
No significant effects of stereotype exposure or moderation
199What role did gender play?
Women reported lower social self-esteem overall, but no stereotype-specific interaction.