1When was the Family Code & what did it do?
1918
Made divorce easier + strengthened women's marital/property rights
2When was the Zhenotdel introduced + what did it encourage
1919
Women's section of the Bolsh party
Encouraged women's political participation outside of home
Alexandra Kollontai
3When was abortion made freely available in state hospitals
1920
4When was war communism introduced + what was it
1918
During Civil War
Grain requisitioning for peasants to feed soldiers
5Stats for the effect of nationalisation of heavy industries during War Comm in 1918
4.2M tons of steel in '13 to 200K in '20
6When was the NEP introduced and why + what was it
1921 by Lenin
Assauge the adverse effects of War Communism + keep regime stable (Lenin centralism)
Economic expedient
7What did the NEP introduce?
The end of forced grain requisitioning
Fixed tax on grain
Farmers could keep and sell their surplus crops on an open market for profit
Private individuals could own and operate small and medium-sized retail and manufacturing businesses
Stable, gold-backed currency
Reintroduced wages after hyperinflation destroyed the old money system
8Consequences of NEP? Good + Bad
Good:
Agricultural production reached WWI levels by 1925 (50M-->70M)
Bad:
NEPmen, Kulaks
reintroduction of capitalism
Scissors crisis = double-speed economy
Farmers returned to subsistence farming + killed livestock + witheld grain
9How did Bolsh. solve scissors crisis?
Intervened in '23
Capped industrial prices
10Effect of Bolsh. intervention during scissors crisis?
Preserved Smychka --> rebuilt trust b/w prol + peasantry
Pacified working class --> furious about low wages vs high costs of living
Restrained NEPmen
11What was smychka
"smychka of the city and the village"
political and economic alliance between urban industrial workers (the proletariat) and rural farmers (the peasantry)
12How did the Bolsh. restrain the NEPmen
Accused them of price gouging + capitalist profiteering
13How was education reformed by the Bolsh. and when
1917
Decrees promising free, compulsory, and universal education for all children
Banned religious instruction in schools
Believed literacy was vital to revolution
Promoted science + literacy
14By how much did literacy rates in those above 9 increase + from what date to what?
24% 1897
51% by 1926
15What was the effect of the Bolsh reform of education?
Opened up advantages for marginalised communities under Tsarist system (women + peasants)
Allowed party to consolidate ideological control over younger gens.
Schools increasingly embedded Bolsh ideology
16When was the Komsomol founded and how many members at the start vs by 1926
1918 - 22K
1926 - 1.8M
For 18-28
17When were the Young Pioneers founded + how many members by 1926
Founded 22
2M by 26
For 9-14
18How many OG bolshevik members were expelled by 1922 and how?
25% of OG bolsheviks
By CHEKA who had unquestioned authority to weed out 'radishes'
19What were 'radishes?'
Anyone accused of supporting White Army during Civil War
20What was bureaucratic centralism
Power is held entirely at the top
Lower-level workers or subordinate officials must follow orders without debate
Top down governing
21How was bureaucratic centralism embedded into the Bolsh party structure?
Through the Secretariat sector who were able to employ and move around jobs and therefore had organisational control over Orgburo and Politburo
22When was the USSR formed?
30 Dec 1922
23What was the effect of the creation of the USSR on nationalities?
Several republics appeared independent but actually acted under instruction of Moscow (i.e., Belarus, Ukraine, Transcaucasia)
Some left Russian sphere of influence (i.e., Finland)
Much of self-determin was ignored as Bolsh did not want to lose economically valuable land
24Essay structure: Bolsh Consolidation of Power
1. Economic (WarCom, NEP, ScisCrisis)
2. Social (Women, Education)
3. Political (BC, creation of USSR)
25Essay structure: Power Struggle after Lenin's Death
1. Centralism (Undisputed leader, No sucessor, Factions)
2. Ideological (Leadership, NEP, revolution)
3. Distinct Claims + Prevention (S, T, K + Z, B, stop others' power gain)
26What was Lenin's significance in the Bolsh Party
Undisputed ideological + political leader
27What made Lenin's leadership undisputed?
April Theses
Directed October Rev
Introduced NEP
Led the Civil War Government
Unwavering audacity
28What was the consequence of Lenin's centralised power?
Bolsh concentrated power w/o figuring out succession process (transfer of leadership after death)
29What spurred Lenin's death and when did he die
Attempted assassination in 1922 = series of strokes
Increasingly unable to govern due to paralysis
Died Jan 1924
30What was significant about the time of Lenin's ailing health?
It gave ample opportunity for leading Bolsheviks to consolidate their own spheres of power/control while the undisputed leader was unable to govern fully
31Lenin never endorsed a successor or a Deputy, what did he do instead?
Criticised all principal contenders in his Political Will (Lenin's Testament)
32When was Lenin's Testament written, when was the postscript?
Written: 1922
Postscript: 1923
33What did Lenin's Testament say?
Trotsky = 'most capable' of Central Committe but warned of too much 'self-assurance'
Stalin = accum 'immeasurable power' but 'too rude' + suggested removal from GS position
Bukharin = never fully understood Marxism
Z + K = reminded of opposition to October Rev
Warned Stalin + Trotsky opp. could produce split in Party
34What does Lenin's Testament reveal about sucession?
Lenin did not have full confidence in any one member
Did not solve succession
35What were the main two divisions in attitudes towards NEP
Trotsky + Left Opposition
Bukharin + Party's Right
36What did Trotsky's Left Opposition want for the NEP + how did they regard the NEP
Regard = strengthening capitalist elements (NEPmen, Kulaks)
Discontinue
Replace w/ rapid industrialisation
Greater pressure on peasantry
37What did Bukharin's Right want for the NEP + how did they regard it?
Supported continuation
Gradual growth
Incentives for peasants to produce grain
38What were the main two splits in attitudes towards revolution
Trotsky's Permanent Revolution
Stalin's Socialism in One Country
39What did Trotsky's PR posit and why?
Economically backward Russia could not sustain revolution bc of 80% peasants
Socialist Rev needs proletariat (workers)
For regime stability, rev needed to spread to advanced EU countries
Russia could NOT sustain socialism
40What did Stalin's SiOC posit and why?
Russia could sustain socialism independently
41What made SiOC more favourable than PR, for whom and why?
Appealed to members disappointed by failed revolutions abroad + exhuasted by years of war
42What is a limitation of stating that ideological disputes were solely central to power struggle + example?
Senior members + candidates frequently switched positions + used doctrine tactically
E.g., Stalin defending NEP against Trot/Left then adapting rapid indust. against Buk/Right
43Who were the principal contenders in the power struggle?
Stalin
Trotsky
Bukharin
Kamenev
Zinoviev
44What were Stalin's pros/cons in the power struggle?
Pros:
GS since 1922 = influence over appts, promotions + transfers
Only full member of Sect, Org, Polit
Admin role = polticial power
Cons:
Dissed by Lenin's Testament (Capricious, opportunistic)
Lacked charisma + intellect
Poor orator
Minor role in 1917 revolution
Stood out as Georgian native (vs. Westernised elite)
45What were Trotsky's pros/cons in the power struggle
Pros:
Heavily involved in 1917 revolution
Created/Led Red Army
Exceptional theorist + orator
Contributed decisively to Bolsh victory (Commissar for War)
Cons:
Late entry into Bolsh (1917)
Ex-Menshevik (OG Bolsh sus of him)
Reputation for arrogance
Intellect alienated new members
46What were Z + K pros/cons in the power struggle?
Z + K:
Worked closely w/ Lenin
Controlled Petrograd and Moscow Party organisations
Z:
Chaired Comintern
Cons:
Seen as opportunistic after jumping from Stalin to Trotsky
47What were Bukharin's pros/cons in the power struggle?
Pros:
Lenin: Party's 'golden boy'
Editor of Pravda
Prominent theorist
Charismatic
Cons:
Disagreed w/ Lenin on Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: hurt his credibility among Bolshevik hardliners
Consensus orientated --> opposed to backroom machinations Stalin used
48If rivals in the power struggle were not ONLY motivated by the desire to claim individual power, what else influenced their actions?
Desire to prevent other candidates from amassing power over them --> being subordinate to another
49Why was the form of leadership contested during the power struggle?
Lenin's own policy contradictions
War Comm = Centralised + coercive economic control
NEP = limited trade + capitalist elements
Therefore, no clear stance on individual/collective leadership over people
50What was the impact of Lenin's ban on factions on the power struggle + when was the ban?
1921
Meant disputes had to be undertaken covertly
Led to private alliances, procedural manipulation, accusations of disloyalty (i.e., Stalin towards United Opposition)
51What did historian Michael Lynch say about the Bolshevik Party political system?
It lacked a 'clearly defined pattern of promotion' which allowed ambition individuals to advance without constraint
52Essay structure: Stalin's emergence as leader
1. General Secretary + suriving LT
2. Temp alliances + Cult of Lenin
3. Errors of other members
53How did Bolsh initially view GS position and what was it in actuality?
Largely bureaucratic
- Center of institutions that controlled political advancement
- Full member of Polit, Secretariat, Org (only one)
- Appoint regional Party secretaries
- Approve promotions
- Transfer officials
- Block the careers of opponents
54What was the nomenklatura?
- System of patronage
- Ruling bureaucratic elite whose key leadership positions were approved and controlled by the Communist Party (specifically by JS)
- Official list of influential posts in government, industry, education, and military that only the Communist Party had the authority to fill
55How did Stalin use the nomenklatura?
Built a network of members whose careers depended on his patronage
56What role did the nomenklatura play in Stalin's rise to power?
Supported him at Party Congresses which then allowed him to appear influential + consolidate his viewpoints
57What did Trotsky call Stalin due to his position as GS + what did it mean?
'the dispenser of favour and fortune'
Bureaucratic control gave him loyalty revolutionary prestige (Trotsky) could not provide
58What was the Lenin enrollment (stats + date)?
JS effort to 'reproletarianise' the party
1923-1925
600K working class members into Party
Membership of party DOUBLED
59Why was the Lenin Enrollment beneficial for Stalin?
New members = less familiar w/ complex Marxist theory
- Preferred Stalin's pratical language over Trotsky, Bukharin etc
- Depended on GS apparatus for employment and promotion
60How did Stalin survive Lenin's Testament?
Z + K helped him neutralise at 13th PC
- Document only read @ closed delegations, not circulated, forbidden to take notes
61How did Stalin use temporary alliances to emerge as leader?
Sequential elimination NOT simultaneously
62How did Stalin eliminate Trotsky as a rival?
1923 troika (Z+K)
Portrayed Trotsky = arrogant, outsider (Bolsh 17, ex-menshevik)
Promoted SiOC against Perm Rev
- Trotsky lost Commissar for War in 25
63When did Stalin exploit the 21 ban on factions in his rise to power?
Worker's Opposition - Kollontai + Shlyapnikov, critical of bureaucracy + wanted power returned to workers
Democratic Centralists - Party leadership destroying local party dem
Legalising party purges (CHISTKI)
64When did Stalin join Bukharin + the Right
1925 after defeating Trotsky
65What was the United Opposition + when created?
1926
Z + K + T
Against Stalin's growing power
66How did Stalin defeat the United Opposition + consequences of defeat?
Used Lenin's 21 ban on factions to present organised disagreement as disloyalty
Z + K expelled in 27
Trotsky exiled from USSR in 29
67How did Stalin defeat the Right?
Abandoned previous position on NEP
Adopted rapid industrialisation + collectivisation
Stalin = strong patronage power base
68What was the cult of Lenin?
State-sponsored personality cult
- Turned Vladimir Lenin into an immortal, quasi-religious figure
69How did Stalin use the cult of Lenin to consolidate power?
Supported masoleum in Red Square
Emblamed Lenin to preserve political legacy (so Stalin could continue exploiting it)
Renamed Petrograd --> Leningrad
Portrayed Lenin's writing as doctrine
70What does Graeme Gill say about the way Stalin presented himself vs his rivals?
Trotsky + Z + K presented themselves as Lenin's equals
Stalin portrayed himself as Lenin's loyal disciple
71What were Lenin's errors that enabled Stalin to emerge as leader of USSR?
Underestimated Stalin
Failed to exploit Lenin's dispute w/ Stalin over Georgian Affir
Did not forcefully demand publication of Lenin's Testament
Missed Lenin's funeral after recieveing misleading information about date
- Stalin appeared pubically as Lenin's loyal heir and pallbearer
Published 'Lessons of October'
- Reminded Party that Z +K had opposed it
- Drove them more firmly into Stalin's alliance
72What were Z + K errors that enabled Stalin to emerge as leader of USSR?
Protected Stalin from Lenin's Testament
Helped him defeat Trotsky before reocgnising Stalin as the greater threat
Later alliance w/ Trotsky = inconcistent and opportunistic
73What were Bukharin's errors that enabled Stalin to emerge as leader of USSR?
Lacked Stalin's organisational control + ruthlessness
Depended upon Stalin's support
Stalin used 28 Grain crisis to discredit NEP + isolate the Right
74Overall, how did rival weakness aid Stalin's emergence as leader?
Repeatedly fought one another instead of maintaining a united opposition against Stalin
75Essay Structure: Soviet Rule on Sociocultural
1. Women, family life, welfare
2. Industrialisation, urbanisation and mass education
3. Religion, youth, the arts and historical memory
76What effect did Soviet rule have on women and what was the drawback?
Challenged patriarchal order inherited from Tsarism
Widened women's legal dependence
Liberation remained tied to needs of state (e.g. financial rewards for big families under Stalin)
77What effect did Stalin's rule have on women?
Reversed early Bolsh. family radicalism
Measures = regims need for stability, population growth + disciplined workers after collectivisation + rapid urbanisation
78How many women entered the workforce during industrialisation?
10M
79What beneficial measures were put in place to support women in the workplace under Stalin?
Factory creches
Maternity leave
Childcare
80What were the downsides to Stalinist rule on women?
'Double burden' of unpaid domestic labour + paid employment
Rarely reached senior roles
- Concentrated in lower-paid jobs
Workplace harrassment
Abortion was restricted
Divorce became harder + more expensive
State benefits encouraged lager families
81What positive impact did Soviet rule have on healthcare?
Universal healthcare
Maternity clinics
Sanatoria
Number of doctors + nurses increased
82What negative impact did Soviet rule have on healthcare?
Provision of healthcare remained unequal
Party officials recieved superior services
Famine stricken regions faced severe shortages
Dnepropetrovsk = 400K population, no sewage, 26K Malaria cases (33)
83What are the stats involving Dnepropetrovsk that exemplifies the unequal provison of healthcare under Stalin?
400K population
No sewage
26K Malaria cases (33)
84What was the 'Great Turn'?
A radical shift in Soviet economic policy between 1928 and 1929 under Joseph Stalin
- Collectivisation
- Industrialisation
85What was the numerical effect of the Great Turn on urban populations?
29-39: Increasd 29M, 9M peasants entered urban workforce
Movement created jobs + new industrial communities
5YP drew millions into industrial centers
86What were the negative impacts of the Great Turn on urban pop?
Modernisation expanded opportunity while sharply reducing immediate living standards
- Housing, sanatisation + consumer production failed to keep pace
- Overcrowded communal apartments
- Queues
- Shortages of clothing + shoes
- Rising crime + alchololism
87How much did wages fall between 1928-33
50%
88What was the goal of education in transforming the Soviet state?
Expand literacy + education to create a modern socialist society
89What was encouraged as part of the Soviet mobilisation of education?
Science + literacy
90By how much did school enrollments rise from 1929-40
12M --> 35M
91By how much did literacy rates of those over 9 increase from 1926-40?
51%
92After Bolsh restructuring of education (17) was abandoned after Stalin's GT, what law was introduced and what did it do?
1935 Education Law
- Restored discipline
- Emphasised science, math + technical training
- Supplied engineers + skilled workers required by industralisation
93How many people of prol origin moved into admin/professional positions during 1st 5YP?
1.5M
94Pros + Cons of Stalinist industralisation
Pros: Created genuine mobility
Cons: Produced new privileged elite of specialists, managers and Party offificals who got better wages, housing, healthcare, access to scarce goods
95Instead of actually achieving equality, what did Stalinism do?
Replaced old privilege with new hierarchy dependent on the Party
96Under Bolshevism, what was culture like?
From the outset, a means of creating a loyal socialist state
Allowed relative experimentation in the 20s
97How were youth forced to conform?
YP + Komsomol + education
98What law was made against religion and what did it stipulate?
1929 Law on Religious Associations
- Restricted churches to worship, persecuted clergy, religious buildings closed/destroyed
99How many churches remained open in 1940 as compared to 1917 numbers?
500 in 1940
50K in 1917 (pre revolution)
100Despite suppression, how many Russians identified as religious in 1937 and what does it show?
More than half
Shows limit of state control
Public manipulation cannot change private convictions
101When and where was socialist realism FORMALISED?
First Congress of Soviet Writers
1934
NOTE: 1932 introduced
102What did socialist realism stipulate for art?
Literature, film, theatre, music + visual art to be accessible
Optimistic
Centered on heroic workers
Industrial achievement
Stalin
New Soviet Man/Woman
103How did SR manage to justify suppression of individualism/nonconformity?
Self expression seen as bourgeois indulgence
104What happened to defiant artists (SR)
Censored
Persecuted
105How was history revised under Stalinism?
Rewritten
Trotsky's role in revolution mininised
Purged figures disappeared from photographs
106What + when was the book published by the Party to solidify Stalin's historical revisionism?
1938
Short Course on the History of the All-Union Communist Party
107What did the SCotHotA-UCP posit, how many copies published + in how many languages?
Presented Stalin's interpretation as authoritative
42M copies printed
67 languages
108How was the Cult of Personality influential in the way culture was mobilised under Stalin?
Fused cultural production w/ political obedience
Loyalty to Stalin = loyalty to socialism + motherland