Unit 1

Used to determine cause-and-effect relationships Between- and within-subjects designs Independent and dependent variables

Studies of groups of subjects exposed to conditions in the real world • Not real experiments as potential confounded variables have not been controlled

Focus on a single case or subject (e.g. H.M.)
• Usually more in-depth than other approaches
• Good source of testable hypotheses
• Major problem is generalizability: the degree to which results can be applied to other cases

Conducted for the purpose of acquiring knowledge

Intended to bring about some direct benefit to humankind

Reserpine leads depletion of the monoamines serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine in the brain, creating depressive-like behavior in animals.D epressed behavior of the animals was reversed by restoring brain norepinephrine and/or dopamine levels Research discovered that monoamine levels is related to mood and reward as well as the proper functioning of higher brain regions that regulate emotion and thought. The success of recent antidepressant medications, such as Prozac, has evolved from animal research

1. Structure & Organization of the Brain is Similar
2. Simpler Nervous System
3. Ethical Reasons
4. Advantage of Comparing Species

the brain and mind are the same physical entity

the brain and mind are separate entities (mind = non-material and brain = material)

Studies the neural mechanisms of behavior , Uses direct manipulation of the brain in controlled experiments (e.g. surgical and electrical methods of brain manipulation), Subjects usually laboratory animals, Strong focus on pure research.

Similar to biopsychology, Focuses on the manipulation of neural activity and behavior with drugs, A substantial portion of research is applied

studies the psychological effects of brain damage in human patients , Cannot be studied in humans by experimentation; focuses on case studies and quasiexperimental studies, Has focused on the cerebral cortex, since it is most likely to be damaged by accident or surgery, Most applied of the biopsychological subdisciplines

Studies the relationship between physiological activity and psychological processes in human subjects, Typically uses noninvasive procedures (e.g. electroencephalogram, measures of eye movement)

Deals with the biology of behavior, Compares different species to understand evolution, genetics, and adaptiveness of behavior, Uses laboratory and/or ethnological research, Areas of research that often employ comparative analysis: • Evolutionary psychology • Behavioral genetics

The newest division of behavioral neuroscience, Focuses on the neural bases of cognition and often employs human subjects, Key methods are functional brain imaging techniques

At Neolithic sites (less than 10,000 years) and some older sites skulls found with holes deliberately cut in them, Trepanation: procedure of drilling holes into the skull, Holes exhibit smooth margins and clear signs of healing

Understanding of the nervous system • 1) brain injury disrupts sensations, movements & sometimes death • 2) brain communicates with body via the nerves • 3) brain has different identifiable parts • 4) brain operates like machine and follows laws of nature • Galvani & duBois-Reymond (beginning of 19th century) demonstrated that muscles twitch when nerves are electrically stimulated. • Brain itself generated electricity (change from fluid idea)

Experimental findings of Pierre Flourens- Different brain areas may be involved in different functions • Pierre Flourens ablation studies in pigeons • e.g. cerebellum

Paul Broca found brain damage in left frontal lobe of patient who could understand language but could not speak it, the speech production center of the brain is located on the left side of the brain

a railroad foreman in Cavendish, Vermont who survived a traumatic brain injury in 1848

A theory of evolution- how species develop and die off, described striking structural similarities among species Mechanism for evolution: natural selection, Natural Selection: heritable traits associated with high rates of survival and reproduction are the ones most likely to be passed on to future generations, Darwin observation: mammalian species exhibit same reaction when frightened or aroused, Behavior reflects activity of nervous system and brain mechanisms may be identical across species

(brain & spinal cord)

In general, it prepares the body to cope with an emergency, stress or arousing situation.

acts to conserve energy and promote the vegetative functions of the body.

Carriers sensory information to the CNS from the skin and muscles and has motor fibers that are responsible for bodily movement, Sensory or afferent nerves: carry sensory information to CNS (ARRIVE) Motor or efferent nerves: carry information from CNS out to muscles and glands (EXIT )

The fluid serves as a cushion and protects the brain and spinal cord

An arrangement of endothelial cells that form the walls of the capillaries. In the brain, the endothelial cells are tightly joined to one another and substances cannot pass out of the bloodstream, functions of blood-brain barrier: 1. Protects the brain from "foreign substances" in the blood that may injure the brain, e.g. virus or bacteria. 2. Protects the brain from hormones and neurotransmitters in the rest of the body. 3. Maintains a constant environment for the brain.

encased in bone and covered by three layers

Dura mater– tough outer membrane

Arachnoid membrane- web-like

Pia mater– adheres to CNS surface

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)- Fluid serves as a cushion

2 Distinguishable Parts of Neuron 1.Swollen cell perikaryon) central nucleus region containing (cell body, soma or 2. Thin tubes that radiate from cell body called neurites. 2 types of neurites: 1) axons & 2) dendrite

Astrocytes Most numerous glia in the brain Fill spaces between neurons Influence neurite growth Regulate chemical content of extracellular space Myelinating glia Oligodendroglia (in CNS) Schwann cells (in PNS) Insulate axons Microglia as phagocytes (immune function) can travel through the brain can change shape often get activated in response to injury

Golgi’s view: Neurites of cells fused together to form a reticulum or network. Similar to the circulatory system. Viewpoint known as the reticular theory. Cajal’s view: Neurites of different neurons are not continuous but do come in contact. Communicate by contact, not continuity. Became known as Neuron Doctrine.

• Composed largely of tracts
• Origin of the reticular formation
medulla oblongata- controls a number of reflexes, i.e., heart rate, breathing, vomiting, and sneezing.

Manytracts
• Pons–ventral surface
• Cerebellum– coordination
cerebellum- involved in sensorimotor coordination and balance. It may be more active in organizing sensory information that guides movement
pons- (Latin for bridge) many axons in the pons cross from one side of the brain to the other. It contains nuclei for several cranial nerves

tectum- (Latin for roof) has 2 swellings: the superior colliculus (visual orienting) and inferior colliculus (auditory orienting)
Tegmentum- periaqueductal gray ( processes pain)
Substantia nigra (motor movement)
Ventral tegmental area (reward)

Thalamus- is made up of several different nuclei, which are especially important for relaying sensory information to the cerebral cortex.
Hypothalamus- motivated behaviors, i.e., feeding, drinking & sex

Convolutions serve to increase surface area
Longitudinal fissure– a groove that separates right and left hemispheres
Corpus callosum– largest hemisphere-connecting tract
Limbic system– regulation of motivated behaviors
Mammillary bodies, hippocampus, amygdala, fornix, cingulate, septum
Basal ganglia motor system
Amygdala, striatum (caudate nucleus + putamen), globus pallidus

Recording the membrane potential: difference in electrical charge between inside and outside of cell • Inside of the neuron is negative with respect to the outside • Resting membrane potential is about–70mV • Membrane is polarized (carries a charge)

even Distribution Factors contributing to even distribution of ions (charged particles) • Random motion-particles tend to move down their concentration gradient • Electrostatic pressure repels like, opposites attract Uneven Distribution Factors contributing to uneven distribution of ions • Selective permeability to certain ions • Sodium-potassium pumps, ​​The passive and active factors that influence the distribution of Na+, K+, and Cl- ions across the neural membrane

(making the membrane potential less negative

making the membrane potential more negative)

size and shape of the action potential is independent of intensity of the stimulus that initiated it

Resting (-70mV): Na⁺ out, K⁺ in. Stable.
Depolarization: Na⁺ in, inside positive (+30mV).
Repolarization: K⁺ out, inside negative.
Hyperpolarization: Too much K⁺ out, extra negative.
Resting Reset: Na⁺/K⁺ pump restores balance.

The opening and closing of voltage-activated sodium and potassium channels during the three phases of the action potential: rising phase, repolarization, and hyperpolarization.

impossible to initiate another action potential

harder to initiate another action potential

they get smaller as they travel

integration of events happening at different Places

integration of events happening at different times

synthesized in the bouton and packaged in vesicles

synthesized in the cell body by ribosomes and transported by microtubules

the process of NT release

associated with ligand-activated ion channels

associated with intracellular signal

sensitive to the neurotransmitter released by terminal bouton-acts as negative feedback

responds to chemicals other than the neurotransmitter released by terminal bouton, e.g. nicotinic receptors at DA terminals

scoop up and recycle NT

a NT is broken down by enzymes

increase or facilitate activity

decrease or inhibit activity

Memory, movement. (Alzheimer’s)

Reward, movement. (Parkinson’s, addiction)

Mood, sleep. (Depression)

Alertness, stress. (Fight-or-flight)

Calms brain. (Anxiety, seizures)

Learning, memory. (Too much = brain damage)

Pain relief, pleasure. (Opioids target this)

Effects of dopamine agonists and antagonists on psychotic symptoms led to new treatments for schizophrenia

Nothing injected
Provides both structural and functional information in one image
Better spatial resolution
Can create 3-D images of activity over the entire brain

uses magnetic pulses to stimulate brain areas. It is non-invasive and helps with depression, anxiety, and brain research

A technique that allows for the reversible remote control of cell populations and neural circuitry via systemic injection or microinfusion of an activating ligand Chemogenetic receptors are used to selectively modulate the activity of defined neuronal populations, primarily through a systemic drug injection Approach: DREADDs (designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs) Modify a G-protein receptor that a designer drug will selectively bind To the modified receptors

The combination of genetic and optical methods to achieve gain or loss of function of well-defined events in specific cells of living tissue. Insert opsin genes into specific neurons. This leads to the expression of channel proteins associated with ion exchange. The proteins are activated when exposed to a certain wavelength of light.