Carbos

aldehyde and ketone derivatives of polydric alcohols.

Carbon, hydrogen, oxgen
C H2 O

via ketone / aldehyde functionality
aldose carbonyl at the end
ketose carbonyl in middle

linkage of multiple monosaccharide units

via number of carbons

erythrose, threose

arbinose, ribose, ribulose, xylose, xylulose, lyxose

allose, altrose, fructose, galactose, glucose, gulose, idose, mannose, sorbose, talose, tagatose

seudoheptulose

polysacc --amylase→ disaccharide --maltase→ monosaccharide → absorbed by gut and transported to liver-→ glucose is energy source

non-CHO source --gluconeogenesis→ glucose --glycolysis→ lactate

glucose --glycogenesis→glycogen--glycogenolysis→glucose

is the only carb to be direct used for energy or stored as glycogen

quickly shunted into 1 of 3 poss. Metabolic pathways for energy production

glycolysis
citric acid cycle
oxidative phosphorylation

glucose → pyruvate
generates 2 ATP, 1 NADH, and pyruvate

2 ATP

mitrochondria

32-34 ATP

electron transport and chemiosmosis

via NADH

via NADH and FADH2

1. substrate level phosphorylation
2. oxidative phosphorylation

phosphate is removed from substrate and added to ADP

during glycolysis and citric acid cycle

by oxidation reactions in ETC

1. electron transport
2. chemiosmosis

ATP synthase uses the energy stored in hydrogen ion gradient to make ATP

using a hydrogen ion gradient to drive cellular work

liver, pancrease, and other endocrine glands control blood glucose within narrow range

pancreas

pancreas

adrenal gland

anterior pituitary

thyroid gland

pancreas

glucose is primary source of energy for humans;
nervous sys and brain depends on glucose from surrounding extracell fluid for energy

nervous tissue cannot concentrate / store carbs, so need to maintain steady supply of glucose to tissue

nervouse tissue loses the primary energy source and are incapable of maintaining normal function

1. insulin binding and signal transduction
2. translocation from glogi
3. binding and fusion
4. glucose transport
5. receptor inactivation
6. translocation back to golgi

insulin stimulated glucose transport (GLUT-4)

2 day confirmation where any 1 of 4 tests are positive

1. random glu + symptom ≥ 200 mg/dL
2. OGTT (takes 75 g glucose check in 2 hr) ≥ 200 mg/dL
3. fasting glucose ≥ 126 mg/dL
4. HbA1C ≥ 6.5%

5.7-6.4%

100-125

140-199

1. self monitoring of blood glucose
2. glycosylated HbA1C
3. hexokinase method
4. glucose oxidase methods
5. ketones

highly specific and accurate method for determining the concentration of gluocse in serum or plasma

G6PD

Glucose+ATP --HK→ G6P+ADP
G6P+NADP+ → G6PD → Glucose-6-phosphogluconate + NADPH + H+

specific method for measuring glucose in serum or plasma by reacting the test fluid with glucose oxidase in which gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide are formed

glucose+2H2O+O2-- gluocse oxidase→ gluconic acid+2H2O2
o-toluidine+H2O2 --peroxidase→ oxidized o-toluidine+H2O

used as chromagen for the indicator reaction

glycosylated hemoglobin / hemoglobin A1c

affinity chromatography

works but is temperature dependent

not temperature dependent

prod by liver through metabolism of fatty acid

acetone
acetoacetic acid
3-b-hydroxybutyric acid

for pts with type 1 diabetes during acute illness, stress, pregnancy, elevated blood glucose >300 mg/dL

no

sodium nitroprusside + acetone --NaOH→ --glucose→ violet complex+H2O

sodium nitroprusside + acetoacetic acid --NaOH→ violet complex+H2O

b-hydroxyl butyrate+NAD+ --b-hydroxyl butyrate DH→ NADH (340 nm)

HbA1C because it measures RBC over a 3 months span whereas the other tests are only 1 day span