exam 3 pls print thanks

mechanism: neural
action: fast
effect: brief
example: reflexes

mechanism: hormonal
action: slow
effect: long-lasting
example: puberty

scientific styidy of hormones and endocrine organs

reproduction
growth and development
body defenses
homeostasis
metabolism

produced by specialized cells
screted into extracellular fluids (blood/lymph)
transported by blood / lympth to target cells
change activity of target cells

1. aa - proteins (insulin), peptides, amines
2. steroids ie estrogen .. originate from cholestrol
3. prostaglandins = very active lipids acting locally @ site of release

-affects only target tissues or organs
-hormones bind to specific receptor proteins in PM of target cells
- hormone binding changes target cell activity
- hormone and target cells = like enzyme and substrate

make cells do 1 more of these
- undergo mitosis
- change PM permeabilibity or electrical state
- syntehsize proteins ie enzymes
- activate or deactivate enzymes
- secrete substances ie other hormones

1. steroid hormone passes thru plasma
2. enters nucleus
3. binds to specific receptor proteins (in nucleus)
4. hormone receptor complex binds to specific site on DNA
5. switches "on" certain genes causing
6. protein synthesis

1. non-steroid hormone (1st messenger) binds to PM receptor
2. activated receptor triggers series of rxns that activates an enzyme
3. enzymes causes rxn to produce 2nd messenger molecule, ie cyclic AMP
4. cAMP triggers more changes

negative feeback loops maintain hormone levels in blood
stimulus = low hormone level in blood triggers release of more hormone from endocrine gland
hormone releases stop when level returns to human

d. long-lasting effects

1. hormonal
2. humoral
3. neuron

most common type:
tropic hormones: from other organs elsewehere in body stimulate endocrine glands
ie 2 gonado tropins
FSH = follucle stimulating hormone
LH = luteinizing hormone

ovaries and produce estrogens
testes to produce androgens

changing levels of specific ions and nutrients in body fluids stimulate endocrine glands

involves body fluids
ie blood and lymph

ie parathyroid hormone and calcitonin and insulin and glucagon

produced in response to changing blood Ca2+ levels

produced in reponse to chaning blood glucose lvels

reflexes

mostly controlled by sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system ... fight or flight

released by adrenal medulla

pituitary gland
thyroid gland
pineal gland
adrenal glands
parathyroid glands

hypothalamus
thymus
pancreas
gonads = ovaries and testes

hormones released directly into blood or lymph
- anterior pituitary
thyroid
adrenals
parathyroid

pancrease
gonads

C. H enters nucleus

e. insulin and glucagon

nutrients
waste products
hormones
respiratory gases o2 and co2

rbc, wbc, platlets

function= transport o2 and co2
each cells has ~ 250 million Hg protein molecules that transport o2
5 million rbc / uL of blood

% of blood volume that is rbc

reduced o2 carrying ability of blood due to 1 or both of these
low # of rbc low hct
low # of functional hgb in rbc

abnormal-shaped hgb and rbc
lowers o2 carrying ability
hereditary disorder due to just one dna mutation

abnormally high # of RBC
thickens blood and slows blood flow
blood doping

function = defense and immunity
high wbc = infection

BM becomes cancerous
produces excess immature wbc
lowers o2 carryinng ability = anemia

granules in cytoplasm, lobed nuclei
neutrophils
eos
baso

no granules , nonlobed nuclei
lymphocytes
mono

cells fragments
function = blood clotting

epinephrine and noreprinephrine

substances body may recognize as foreign and may be attached by immune system

recognize antigens and mark them for destruction

1 drop of blood mixed with anti-A 2nd drop with anti B, with anti Rh type by observing agglutination + or no rxn -

most ppl in USA are Rh+
problem if transfusing Rh+ blood into Rh- persion
problem NOT w/ 1st tranfusion bc takes time for Rh- persion to make anti-Rh antibodies
by 2nd transfusion Rh- recipeitns anti-Rh antibodies will attack any Rh+ blood received in future

Rh- mother carrying Rh+ baby may be problem for unborn child
1st pregnancy = no problem
Rh- moms immune system can start makinig anti-Rh antibodies after 1st birth
solution shot of RhoGAM during 1st pregnancy

B & O

Rh- ---> Rh+
Rh- ------> Rh-
assuming Rh- donor has not been exposed to Rh antigen so best to donate only same Rh type

platlets

function - transport
delivers o2 and nutrients to tissues
removes co2 and other wastes from tissues

R & L atria
receive blood
R&L ventricles
- eject blood

R atrum of heart
tricuspid valve
R ventricle
pulmonary semilunar valve
pulmonary trunk
R & L pulomnary arteries
R & L Lungs

R & L pulomnary veins
L atrum

L atrium
mitral valve
L ventricle
aortic semilunar valve
aorta
all body tissues

superior vena cava and inferior vena cava
R atrium

keep blood flow in only 1 direction = prevent backflow
open and close due to pressure change in heart
R & L atrio ventricular AV valves b/w atria and ventricles
mitral valve
tricuspid valve
anchored in place by chordae tendineae heart strings

pulmonary semilunar valve
aortic semilunar valve

1 complete heartbeat

2 ventricles contract

2 ventricles relax

low pressure in heart
blood fills atria and ventricles
semilunar valves closed
tricuspid / mitral valves open
atria contract to force blood into ventricles

ventricles contract = high pressure in heart
tricuspid / mitral valves shit = 1st sound lub
ejected blood pushes semilunar valves open
blood ejected from ventricles thru pulomnary trunk and aorta
atria starts to refill

low pressure in heart
semi-lunar valves shut = 2nd sound dup
stop blood backflow into ventricles
atria finish / refilling
tricuspid / mitral valves open

mitral valve

makes heart beat as 1 unit
cardiac muscle can contract by itself w/o neural stimulus
contraction rate influenced by
intrinsic factor
extrinsic factor

Na and K electrical gradient

sympathetic nervous system

1. sinoatrial SA node pacemaker
2. atrioventricular AV node
3. atrioventricular AV bundle (bundle of His)
4. bundle branches
5. purkinjie fibers

heart pacemaker // starts contraction

@ junction of atria and ventricles

R & L bundle branches in interventricular septum

spread w/in ventrical wall muscles

L atrium

1. Sinoatrial SA node
2. ---> AV node (atria contract)
3. ---> AV bundle / bundle of HiS
4. --> R & L bundle branches
5. Purkinje fibers (ventricles contract)
- Cardiac muscle depolarizes in 1 direction = from atria to ventricles
Ventricles contract to eject blood up and out of the heart

- Cardiac output (CO) = volume of blood heart pumps out /min
- Stroke volume (SV) = volume of blood pumped by 1 contraction (heartbeat)
- Heart rate (HR) = heartbeats / min
- CO = SV * HR
70 mL / beat x 70 beats / min = 4900 mL/min

volume of blood heart pumps out / min

volume of blood pumped by 1 contraction

heartbeats / min

70 mL / beat x 70 beats /min = 4900 mL/min

○ The more cardiac muscle is stretched, the greater its force of contraction
Critical factor controlling SV

SV rises or falls w/ the volume of venous return
volume of blood returned to heart thru veins
○ Exercise : greater venous return --> greater SV

1. Neural (ANS= Automatic Nervous System)
- Sympathetic nervous system
- Parasympathetic nervous system
2. Hormones
Physical factors (ie heavy exercise )

- Transport blood to the tissues and back to heart
- Arteries carry blood away from heart
§ Rule = arteries away!
- Capillaries for exchange b/w tissues and blood
§ O2 and CO2
§ Nutrients and waste products
Veins returns blood to heart

- Narrower lumen = inside fluid space
- So: high pressure
§ Thicker walls to withstand pressure changes
§ Thinker smooth muscle layer to adjust pressure by changing lumen diameter

Wider lumen --> so : low pressure
Thinner walls
Thinner smooth muscle layer
Valves to prevent blood backflow

Blood pressure in vessels decreases as blood travels farther from heart, through systemic circuit
- High BP in arteries closer to heart in circuit
- Lower in capillaries
Lowest in veins farther from heart in circuit

- Middle finger on soft spot at:
- R or L Radial artery
- R or L Carotid artery
- Arteries have pulse b/c they have high pressure … veins don't

D

- Low pressure in veins … so how does blood flow UP from feet back to heart, against gravity
- Solution:
- valves in veins
- Muscular pumps = leg muscles contract to force venous blood back up to heart

- Thin walls = 1 cell layer
- Lining of wall = simple squamous ET = flat cells
- Allows exchange b/w blood and tissue cells thru capillary walls
- Structure matches function!
- Form capillary beds

- 2 types of capillaries
1. Vascular shunt
2. True capillaries
- Entrances to true capillaries guarded by precapillary sphincters = smooth muscles
- When precapillary sphincters closed: blood bypasses that capillary bed thru vascular shunt
- Conserves heat when body is cold

B

Pressure of blood against inner walls of blood vessels

- Use large artery ie brachial artery in arm
- Systolic pressure = during ventricular contraction
- Diastolic pressure = ventricles relaxed
- Expressed as systolic over diastolic pressure
120 / 80 mm Hg = average adult BP