Lecture 1 - cell pathology
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1
what is pathophysiology?
study of the functional changes that occur in the body because of a disease or medical condition
2
What is homeostatis?
the state of dynamic constancy of condition within the body
3
what is the pH of the blood?
7.35-7.45
4
What is the pH of the stomach acid?
2-3
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What are the consequences of failing to maintain homeostasis?
sickness and disease
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Reactions happen at different speeds depending on __
pH
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What does pH mean?
different concentration of H+ ion
8
what are cells?
smalles living subdivision of the human body
9
How are cells divided?
into organelles
10
List the organelles in a cell
nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, golgi apparatus,
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what is the function of mitochondria?
generates ATP; oxidation phosphorylation
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what is the function of endoplasmic reticulum?
adding phosphate
13
what is an example of a free radical?
O2- superoxide (oxidizes)
14
What is the function of golgi apparatus?
releases lysosomes that fuse with bacteria
15
What is the plasma membrane?
selective mechanical barrier; separates intraceullar from the extracellular environment
16
For every phospholipid, what does it have and what does it do?
cholesterol
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What does the cytoskeletal proteins in the cells do?
Help the cell move easily
18
What is the mitochondria gradiant (sodium and potassium) ?
3 Na+ out
2 K+ in
2 K+ in
19
Water always follows ___ in the gradient
Na+ (hypotrophic)
20
Which compound dominants the weight of the cell membrane?
Proteins
21
What can easily cross the cell membrane?
very small molecules and non-polar molecules (like lipi
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What is the plasma membrane structure composed of ?
lipids, proteins and carbs
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What structures are used for movement?
Cilia, flagella, and microvilli
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Where can you find cilia?
fallopian tubes, lungs, trachea
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What are cilia?
short-hair life structures projecting into the extracellular fluid.
Generate flow in extracellular fluid
Generate flow in extracellular fluid
26
what are flagella?
Long whip-like structures found on mature spermatozoa.
Contain "9+2" mirotubule arrangement
Allows sperm to swim
Contain "9+2" mirotubule arrangement
Allows sperm to swim
27
What are microvilli?
found on the GI tract
finger-like projections
greatly increases surface area!!! (to abosorb as much nutrients as possible)
finger-like projections
greatly increases surface area!!! (to abosorb as much nutrients as possible)
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What is the function of the nucleus?
control center which contains chromatin (DNA + associated proteins, histones). largest organelle.
Nuclear envelope
nuclear pore complexes
Nuclear envelope
nuclear pore complexes
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what do the genes do?
tell the cell what to create
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what are genes?
sequences of DNA containing information needed to make proteins with the proper amino acid sequence
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what is a genome?
the total amount of ALL genes in the human body
~25,000
~25,000
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what is a proteome?
All the different proteins produced in the human body
~100,000
~100,000
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How can genes encode for more than one protein?
alternative splicing
34
are all genes active in the genome?
no
35
where does transcription happen?
nucleus
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where does translation happen?
cytoplasm
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What are transcription factors?
protein that controls rate of transciption and which genes should be on or off
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what does gene expression depend on?
cell function
39
What do neutrophils do (in general)?
phagocytosis
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what are the steps to break down particles that are coming from the outside of the cell?
phagocytosis > phagosomes > herterophagosome (PRIMARY lysosomes bing with phagosome)> exocytosis
41
what are the steps to break down organelles in a cell?
lysosomes create autophagosomes and release via exocytosis,
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What are examples of wastes that happen noramlly within the cell?
ammonia, creatinine
43
What are the 4 forms of chemical signaling between cells?
Autocrine
Signalling across gap junctions
Paracrine
Endocrine
Signalling across gap junctions
Paracrine
Endocrine
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what happens in autocrine chemcial signaling?
a cell targets itself (ex: monocytes produced IL-1)
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what happens in gap junctions chemcial signaling?
A cell targets a cell connected by gap junctions (ex: cardiac cells)
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what happens in paracrine chemcial signaling?
a cell targets a nearby cell (ex: immune cells, sertoli cells - maturation of sperm)
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what happens in endocrine chemcial signaling?
a cell targets a distant cell through the bloodstream (ex: hormones like erythropoietin)
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How is the system controlled? (in general)
Negative feedback loop
Positive feedback loop
Positive feedback loop
49
what is a feedback?
return of output from a regulatory mechanism into the input part of that system, which influences subsequent output by the regulatory mechanism
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what is negative feedback loop?
chagne in a condition leads to a response which COUNTERACTS that change (ex: calcitonin (thyroid). parathyroid hormones releases calcium into blood) or (ex: standing up fast)
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what is positive feedback loop?
change in a condition leads to a response which AMPLIFIES that change
(ex: oxytocin released into blood during birth)
(ex: oxytocin released into blood during birth)
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What are the two outcomes when there is cell injury?
reversible injury
irreversible injury
irreversible injury
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Irreversible injury leads to
Necrosis or apoptosis
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reversible injury leads to
back to normal cell
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what is necrosis?
cells fall apart and lysosomes released into the space (inflammation happens)
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what is apoptosis
cell is instructed by genes to die. (WBC come in)
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what happens to the cell when there is an injury but it fixes?
damaged cell > lost gradient in cell membrane > increase in anaerobic glycolysis > decreased ATP > lactic acid environemnt (pH goes down) > decrease in enzyme activity > decrease in protein synthesis, metabolism > increase in autophagocytosis > influx of water and sodium > hypotrophic cell
58
what is an example of a good apoptoic?
apoptosis of interdigital tissues to create fingers
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failed apoptosis of interdigital tissues create
syndactyly
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What are the 4 types of necrosis?
Coagulative necrosis
Liquefactive necrosis
Caseous necrosis
Enzymatic fat necrosis
Liquefactive necrosis
Caseous necrosis
Enzymatic fat necrosis
61
What is coagulative necrosis?
Most common form
due to hypoxia/apoxia
white appearance
due to hypoxia/apoxia
white appearance
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What is liquiefactive necrosis?
in brain
Blisters at smaller scale
brain turns into liquid - stroke
Blisters at smaller scale
brain turns into liquid - stroke
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What is caseous necrosis?
TB
confinement
granuloma!!!
confinement
granuloma!!!
64
What is enzymatic fat necrosis?
Acute pancreatitis - inflammation of pancreas
Pancreas produces a lot of exocrine hormones
Lipase breaks down lipids
Pancreas produces a lot of exocrine hormones
Lipase breaks down lipids
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what type of necrosis is this?
coagulative
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what type of necrosis is this?
Enzymatic fat necrosis
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what type of necrosis is this?
Caseous necrosis
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what type of necrosis is this?
Liquefactive necrosis
69
What is ischemia?
condition in which blood flow (and thus oxygen) is restricted or reduced in a part of the body.
70
what is postperfusion injury?
Oxygen toxcity results in cases from activated oxygen radicals. decreas in scavenger enzyme systems.
71
Patients with myocardial infarction can experience what type of postperfusion injury
postperfusion myocardial injury
72
what are the main forms of adaptation of cells?
Atrophy
Hypertrophy
Hyperplasia
Metaplasia
Intracellular accumulation
Hypertrophy
Hyperplasia
Metaplasia
Intracellular accumulation
73
what are intracellular accumulations?
occur through the buildup of various cellular constituents
74
What are examples of intracellular accumulations?
Coal particles
Hemosiderosis - iron accumulation
Lipid accumulation
Hemosiderosis - iron accumulation
Lipid accumulation
75
What does asbestos cause?
Mesothelioma