chem doc

The forces that keep molecules together are called intermolecular forces (IMF).

Ionic bonds are a transfer of electrons between a metal ion (the metal loses its electrons and becomes
a positive ion - cation), and a non-metal ion (the nonmetal gains electrons and becomes a negative
ion - anion). Electrons are held tightly by the anion.

Electronegativity diffrence higher then 1.7 ionic bonding because one has much stronger forces so it will be transfer of electrons.

Ionic compounds don't conduct electricity, unless dissolved in water, or melted, where their
dissociated ions can support the flow of electrons.
Because the bond is so strong, ionic compounds are hard, brittle, solids that have high melting
points and boiling points.
They tend to be soluble in water, because water is polar, and the cations in the ionic compound
are attracted to the oxygen end of water, and the anions in the ionic compound are attracted to
the hydrogen end of water.

Covalent bonds are a sharing of electrons between two or more nonmetal atoms.
Non polar covalent (about 0.0 to 0.4 electronegativity difference)
Polar covalent (about 0.4 to 1.8 electronegativety difference)
The bond polarity is a continuum measure, i.e. the greater the difference, the more polar the
bond. We treat this measure as a relative measure (used to compare bond polarity, not decide
whether a bond is "polar" or not.

LDFs are weak intermolecular interactions that are caused by the random motion of electrons
around atoms. There is a tendency for a brief instant that a high density of electrons if found on
one side of a molecule (a negative dipole), and therefore another area of the molecule has a
deficiency of electrons (a positive dipole). These dipoles are called instantaneous dipoles, and disappear very quickly due to electron repulsion at the area of high electron density. Exhibited by all but for Non poolar substances this is most significant.

LDFs are increased as we increase the number of electrons in a molecule. Therefore, the greater
the molecular mass, the more dispersion forces a molecule has.

Dipole dipole interactions occur between the oppositely charged regions (permanent dipoles) of
polar molecules.

Dipole dipole interactions occur between polar molecules.

Hydrogen bonding occurs between molecules that have F-H, O-H, or N-H bonds. These very polar
bonds expose the hydrogen atom's nuclei (making it a positive region). This exposed nucleus is
attracted to the lone pair of electrons of a nearby highly electronegative atom (like F, O, or N).

A F-H, O-H, or N-H (very electronegative, period 2 elements) bond must be present for
hydrogen bonding to occur.

If substance A has a higher melting and boiling point than substance B, what can you say about the
substances' intermolecular forces?

Hydrogen bonding, dipole dipole interactions, and then LDFs.

linear-180, trigonal planar-120, Tetrahedral-109, trigonal pyramid-107, bent-105.

a measure of atoms nucleus to attract shared electrons, higher electronegativity when you go top of halogens and low at bottom of alaki metals. Are affected by # of valence electrons(the less valence electron less electronegativity) and Electron sheilding ( the more sheiding the less electronegativity). METALS ARE REACTIVE WHEN LOW ELECTRONEGATIVITY AND NON METALS ARE REACTIVE THE MORE ELECTRONEGATIVITY

repeating pattern of positive and negative ions forming an ionic compound

Valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory

exothermic- hot endothermic- cold

Put liquods in burrets take vinyl and acetate strips rub with fur to give charge and put near stream if it bends its polar

acid -litmus is red base -litmus is blue, ionic- conductive (high MP BP) molecular- non conductive(LOW BP compared to ionic) elements- no conductivity in water and conductive as solid

Consists of a solute dispersed (dissolved) in a solvent. Solvent is components of solutions whose phase remains same after mixing. If two substances are in same phase, solvent is the component present in greater quantity. Solute molecules move freely in solvent and interact with other molecules/ions

Electrolytes molecules that ionize completely in solution. As a result, electrolyte solutions readily conduct electricity. Nonelectrolytes do not dissociate into ions in solution

Solute breaks bonds - endothermic. Solute breaks bonds- endothermic. Solute and solvent form bonds- exothermic

M/V% g/100ml OR ml/100g
ppm = mg/1l or 1kg
ppb- ug/1L or kg Molar concentration =mol/l concentration of ions - calculate con for whole and dissosiate the compound and find and times by pig ratio so con of whole compound times pig mol of ion / mol of whole compound

are all solid, electroytic formed and conduct electricity
if dissosiate great
( major entities is products)
ionic compoud(s)--->+ion(aq) + -ion(aq)
if dissosiate poorly
( major entities is reactants)
ionic compoud(s) <---> +ion(aq) + -ion(aq)

made up molocule can be all 3 s,g,l , no electricity , colorless,
good disolver
( major entities is products)
molecular compound(s,l,g)---> molecular compound (aq)
poor dissolver
( major entities is reactants)

molecular compound(s,l,g)<---> molecular compound (aq)

ionise to form hydrogen + balanced species molecular compound & electroyte. strong acids use ---> remaining use <----> when ionizing they loose only one H+ even if they have more. High solubility= products as major entities

an equation for a reaction in solution showing only those particles that are directly involved in the chemical change.
Cross out all spectators and if they not soluble in water they stay solid and become spectator. GEN 17 rule must be followed.

A measure of how much solute can dissolve in a given solvent (100ml) at a given temperature. Temp causes solids to be more soluble where for gas its the oppisite. unsaturated- more solute can be added can dissolve more, Saturated-maximum concentration. no additional will dissolve. This forms equilibriam and symbolized as double arrows cause rate of crystalizing is same as rate of dissolving. Supersaturated more solute then the volume at temp can hold.

dissolve in any proporyions and no max concentration(methanol). Do not dissolve in water at all insted form another layer (mineral oil)

Qualitative is descriptive information or data while Quantitative is numerical information or data

Adding water to a solution in order to decrease the concentration. can be found using the civic formula (CiVi=CfVf) . constant is amount(mol)
procedure 1. place stock solution in ( __ ml) CLEAN DRY beaker. 2. Using pipet transfer 10ml of stock solution into a (__ ml ) volumetric flask with adequate rinsing. 3. fill volumetrick flask with deionized water. 4. place stopper and mix by inversion

use c=n/v and m=NM to find mass of solid( so have to find molar mass too). procedure 1. Place calculated mass into a __ml(half size of what in question) clean dry beaker. 2. dissolve solute with __ml(same ml as before) deionized water. 3. transfer 50 ml solution into__ml(OG ml in question) volumetric flask with adequate rinsing 4. fill volumetric flak with deionized water. 5. place stopper and mix by inversion

Arhenius acid will ionize in water and form H+ and balancing species and Arhenius base will dissosiate in water to form hydroxide ion and balancing species).

many acid and bases were concidered neutral with his theory. Revised theory states when acid and water or base and water form they form H3O+(acid) or OH- (base) and balancing species. Strong acid fully ionize where weak acids only partially do and react slowly with active metals. Strong bases FULLY DISSOLVE in water and Weak bases PARTIALLY DISSOLVE

A reaction between H3o and OH ions that end up creating water

reacts once with water. where poly contains more then one hydrogen. polyprotic are weak acids(excepy Sulfuric acid) that get weaker as reactions go. SAME with bases but insted of giving hydrgen they recive.

hydrogen ion concentration cna be greater that 1-14 and negative Hh neutral has H3O+ of 1*10^-7 mol/l any thing under is acid and over is base PH= -log( con of H3O) H3O+ con= 10^-PH) same with BAse but insted of H3O it is OH-. you can interchange between PH and POH by using 14= PH + POH. As you go towards 0 in PH scale the con becomes higher of H3O and if uou go towards 0 in POH scale the con of OH- increaces.
ph= acid to base POH=base to acid

compounds whose colors are sensitive to pH and react with acid or base . Used in titrations

volume of solution of known volume and concentration is used to find unknown concentration but known volume of substance. The unknown concentration goes in beaker with indicator with change color around 7. titrant is in burret and is the opposing ph of unknown concentration. Peform titration until color change this means end point and solution is neutralized. You now also now know the volume of known concentration needed to peform neutralization and now can find unknown concentration. ( FORM OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS)

mmHg, atm, kPa,

celcius +273.15

*Real*
- gas particles have volume
- some attraction (IMF)

*Ideal*
- volume of gas particles is insignificant ( allows 0 volume at when K is 0)
- no attractions (does not change states of matter when cooled)
are diffrent most when high pressures and low temps. Otherwise veryu similar.

expkains macroscopic properties of gases based on indivisual particles.

P1V1=P2V2
The relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperture

V1/T1 = V2/T2
the law that states that for a fixed amount of gas at a constant pressure, the volume of the gas increases as the temperature of the gas increases and the volume of the gas decreases as the temperature of the gas decreases

P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2
the relationship between the pressure, volume, and temperature of a fixed amount of gas

the relationship PV=nRT, which describes the behavior of an ideal gas. Needed for vary amounts of mol

equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules allows for calculating molar volume (V) V=v/n

compressable, expand as temp increace, lov viscosity(easy flow), Low density, mix evenly and completly with other gases, no defined shape or volume(takes shape of containor) ALL PRPPERTIES DUE TO LOTS OF MOLECULAR MOTION AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

when balanced equation is given at constant temp and pressure we can deduce volumes by using PIG ratios. HOWEVER THE RATIO USED TO COMPARE MUST BE THE LIMITING REAGENT.

Subjective evaluations of general observations and information. Includes concentration and dilution. In stoich this can be looking at Solution color of solution which can tel which ions are present. Or flame test which when lit certain ions impact flame color. If those dont work you can use precipatate test by adding compound in the solution that should precipitate.

WAy for scientists to solve problems realatated to balancing chemical equations. We do this by realating info an=bout known substances and deduce info about another substances. THIS IS DONE USING PIG RATIOS. IF GIVEN OR PREDICT MASS FIND MOLLAR MASS

yeild:(100 means perfect result) actual/perdicted Eror:(0 means perfect) perdicted-actual /perdicted. Actual yeid- the expirement or lab result. Perdicted- from authourity (manufacturer or stoich)

chemical in reaction that runs iout first and hinders how much product can be made. all stoich based on stoich. if it gives you info on both chemicals you have to find limiting. You can find using mol ratios or do stoich twice and see which one has smaller number.

in these conditions in gas you use the constants given and the given variables to find answer. DONT USE R CONSTANT.

the combined proportionality constant in the ideal gas law

all particles stop moving and there is no spaces between particles. The volume and pressure become 0 (ideal gas)