psych431 final

Holland Occupational model:
-also known as RIASEC model

- hexagonal model of personality types and occupational themes

-uses Holland codes (defined as )

-relevant to assessment and career guidance because work environments tend to possess consistency in regard to types --> makes it easier for clients to find person-environment fit when they possess consistency

-consistency versus differention
-consistency: adjacent personality types bear greater similarity to one another than types that are separated on the figure.
-differentiation: differentiation refers to the relative strength of the first, second, and third personality types of the Holland code

-simplicity is also a weakness -- easy to fall into 'test and tell' trap

theory of Person-Environment Fit (PEF):
-proposed that personality traits/interests tend to cluster into a small numbeer of vocationally relevant patterns, called types

-for each personality type, there is also a corresponding work environment best suited to that type

-6 types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and coventional (RIASEC)

-Each type corresponds to both a set of personality traits/interests and also to a set of environmental work demands


theory of Person-Environment Correspondence (PEC):
-central principle is that the more closely the rewards of the job or the organization correpsond to the core values of the individual, the more likely it is that he or she will find satisfaction with the position

-invokes cognitive, personality, and environmental styles in understanding work adjustment


Similarities between PEC and PEF:
-central similarity: in determining suitable careers, both theories compaire attributes of individuals w/ qualities need in occupations

Differences between PEC and PEF:
-PEC places greater emphasis on individual abilities and their match to the ability patterns required by specific occupations

-PEC places greater weight on individual values and their correspondence to the value fulfillments provided by specific occupations

Behavioral assessment :
-strategies tend to be simple, direct, behavior-analytic, and continuous treatment

-concentrates on behavior itself rathern on underlying traits, hypothetical causes, or presumed dimensions o f personality.

-designed to meet the needs of therapists and their clients in a quick and uncomplicated manner

-often part of behavior therapy designed to change the duration, frequency, or intensity of a well-defined target behavior

-basic assumptions, practical aspects, and essential goals differ between approaches

-entails more of a direct sampling of the criterion behaviors themselves

Traditional:
-tend to be complex, indirect, psychodynamic, and often extraneous to treatment

- involve the assessment of hypothesized personality constructs which, in turn, are used to predict overt behavior

-assumes underlying trait

-forced choice, self-report inventory

-proponents deem it valuable in vocational guidance and organizational consulting

-scored on 4 theoretically independent polarities: Extraversion-Introversion, Sensing-iNtution, Thinking-Feeling, and Judging-Perceiving (E-I, S-N, T-F, J-P)

-16 different personality tpyes

E-I: extravert (eg., initating, active) directs energy outward to people and conversations, introvert (eg., contained, quiet) direct energy inward to his or her inner world

S-N: those who prefering sensing (eg., practical, concrete) rely on the immediate senses, whereas those who prefer intuition (N; eg., abstract, imaginative) rely upon 'relationships and/or possibilities that have been worked out beyond the reach of the conscious mind

T-F: refers to basing conclusions on thinking (eg., logical, reasonable), that is, logic and objectivity, as opposed to feeling (eg., accepting, empathetic), which involves a reliance on perrsonal values and social harrmony

J-P: judging-perceiving indicates a preference for decisiveness and closesure (J; eg., planful, systematic) or an open-ended flexibility and spontaneity (P; eg., casual, emergent)

Interview (332):
-usually one part of the evaluation process, but many administrators regard it as the vital make or break component of hiring

Bio-data:
-objective or scorable autobiographical data are typically secured by means of a structured form variously referred to as a bio-graphical blank, biographical data form, application blank, interview guide, individual background survey, or similar device

-biodata furnishes an exceptionally powerful basis for the prediction of employee performence

-rationale for approach is that future work-related behavior can be predicted from past choices and accomplishments

-have predictive power b/c certain character traits that are essential for success are also stable and enduring

-caution must be exercised when using this approach for personnel selection b/c employers may be prohibited by law from asking questions about age, sex, religion, etc.

-using RET technique can help promote honest responses by increasing accountability

Validity:
i) biodata
-biodata has generally positive findings in terms of validity. But:
-caution must be exercised when using this approach for personnel selection b/c employers may be prohibited by law from asking questions about age, sex, religion, etc.

-using RET technique can help promote honest responses by increasing accountability

ii) interview:
-early research examining unstructured interviews found low validity (around mid -.20s)

-later research using structured approach found higher validity in comparison

-under carefully designed conditions, interview can provide a reliable and valid basis for personnel selection

-however, prereq conditions for interview validity are not always available --> require structuring and standardization to be valid:
a)Important to ensure structure is not carried too far, b) without structure planned structure (sometimes even w/ it), interviewers talk too much, and c) interviews made routinely in nearly every organization could be vastly improved if interviewers were aware of these conclusions

-essential problem is that each interviewer may evaluate only a small number of applicants, so that standardization of interviewer ratings is not always realistic

-while interview is potentially valid as a selection technique, in its common, unstructured application there is probably substantial reason for concern

-compilation of neuropsychological tests designed to evaluate the functioning of the brain and nervous system

-category test

-abstract reasoning and concept formation with series of geometric shapes

Tests and Procedurers of the Halstead-Reitan Test Battery:
-category test: measures abstract reasoning and concept formation

-tactual performance test: measurers kinesthetic and sensorimotor ability

-speech sounds perception test: measures attention and auditory-visual synthesis

-seashore rhythm test: measures attention and auditory perception

-finger tapping test: measures motor speed

-grip strength: measures grip strength with dynamometer

-trail making, parts A,B: measures scanning ability, mental flexibility, and speed

-tactile form recognition: measures sensory-perceptual ability

-sensory-perceptual exam: measures sensory-perceptual ability

-aphasia screening test: measures expressive and receptive language abilities

-supplementary: WAIS, Wechsler Memory Scale

Major Methods of Establishing Reliability:'

What are the 5 types of reliability?
Inter-rater: Different people, same test. Test-retest: Same people, different times. Parallel-forms: Different people, same time, different test. Internal consistency: Different questions, same construct.

-reliability can be defined conceptually as the degree to which measurements of individuals on different occasions, or by different observers, or by similar or parallel test, produce the same or similar results

internal consistency:
i) split-half reliability:
-original method of measuring internal consistency

-calculated by splitting the test in half and correlating the two parrts

-if the scale as a whole is internally consistent, then any two randomly derived halves should contain similar items and thus yield comparable scores

2 problems:
a) based on fact that reliability of a scale is proportional to its length, splitting a scale in half reduces its length by 50% and hence underestimates the reliability
-solved by using Spearman-Brown formula which compensates for reduction in length

b) there are many ways to split a scale in half
-for dichotomous items, solved by KR-20, which can be thought of as the mean of all possible split-half reliabilities


3 Myths about Alpha:
i) Alpha is a fixed property of a scale
-You cannot trust that published estimates of α apply in all situations
-If the group for which the scale will be used is more or less homogeneous than the one in the published report, then α will most likely be different (higher in the first case, lower in the second).

ii) Alpha measurers only the internal consistency of the scale
-Because α is affected by the length of the scale,high values do not guarantee internal consistency or unidimensionality.
-a high value of α is a prerequisite for internal consistency, but does not guarantee it; long, multidimensional scales will also have high values of α

iii) Bigger is always better
-Values of α can be too high, and point to redundancy among the items

Executive functions:
-include logical analysism conceptualization, reasoning, planning, and flexibility of thinking

-ability to respond to novel situations in an adaptive manner (volition, planning, purposive action, effective performance)

-associated with frontal lobe --> so frontal lobe dysfunctions include motivational problems, difficulty in mental shifts, problems in stopping, self-awareness deficits, and concrete attitude.


Useful tests:
i) Porteus Mazes:
-without lifting pencil and attempting to avoid dead ends, examinee must trace a line throrugh a series of increasingly difficult mazes
-devised as a culture reduced measure of planning and foresight
-underused instrument is quite sensitive to the effects of brain damage, particularly in the frontal lobes

ii) Wisconsin Card Sorting Test:
-64 cards, sort according to an unknown principle, examiner will shift (eg., color to form), look for preservation strategy
-good measue of executive functions, although its differential sensitivity to frontal lobe damage is debated
-devised to study abstract thinking and the ability to shift set
-common use is to gauge ongoing recovery in patients with brain trauma of recent onset

iii) Tinkertoy test:
-50 pieces of tinkertoy, 5 min, make whatver you like --> -1 to +12 #pieces used, mobility, symmetry, naming of it
-head injury: often produce impoverished designed consisting of a small # of pieces, also can't name what it is
-devised to give patients the opportunity to demonstrate executive capacities within the structured format of an examination

iv) Category Test from the Halstead-Reitan battery:
-abstract reasoning and concept formation with series of geometric shapes

v) Real world assessment of route finding:
-ability to find an unfamiliar location in the city requires strategy, self-moniterring, and corrective maneuvers

vi) Behavioral Assessment of the Dysexecutive System:
-consists of 6 novel situational tests that resemble real life daily acitives
-items involve likely changes when executive functions are impaired

-evaluates attitudes and expeiences relating to the honesty, dependability, trustworthiness, and prosocial behaviors of a respondent

-typically consist of 2 sections

-first section deals with attitudes toward theft and other forms of dishonesty such as beliefs about extent of employee theft, degree of condemnation of theft, endorsement of common rationalizations about theft, and perceived ease of theft

-second sections deals with overt admissions of theft and other illegal activities such as items stolen in the last year, gambling, and drug use

-most widely researched tests include: Personnel Selection Inventory, Reid Report, and the Stanton Survey

-overt integrity tests: contain questions about attitudes toward theft and items dealing with admission of theft and other illegal activities eg., PEOPLE survey, Phase II Profile

-personality based integrity tests: eg., employment productivity index, personnel reaction blank


Validity:
-one study had findings that supported the value of integrity tests in personnel selection overall --> correlations were .32 when criterion was counterproductive work behavior, even higher correlation (r = .42) was found when using self-rerports of CWB in comparison to other reports or employee records

-another study found average validity of .41 when using integrity tests to predict supervisory ratings of job performance

-however, other studies have concluded that integrity tests do not measure up to expectations of experts in assessment but such tests are better than hit or miss, unstandardized methods used by many employers

-a concern is that situational factors may moderate the validity of these instrruments

Rorschach Performance assessment System (R-PAS)

Administration: 233
-examiner first establishes rapport and then sits to the side of client/patient to minimize body language communication

-examiner asks respondent to look at stimulis and answer what it might be

-before test, examiner asks for 2, maybe 3 responses per card

-during teset, if 1 reply is given, examiner prompts for additional response and then pulls card after 4 responses are provided

-this is called response optimization (**consider eliminating the definition of this in this part of the response and instead just state that its the approach they take)


Scoring: 234
-intricate process that requires significant training

-responses are scored for a number of variables such as location, content, form quality, thought processes and determinants

i) Location: did you see an image in its totality/wholeness or differrent partrs of the image or in the white space?
good: whole blot responses (W)
-high W: big picture ability to organize and integrate enviro
-low w: depression anxiety

common detail (d): obvious aspects of the situation
-high d: concrete, obvious safe
-low d: common under stress

ii) Determinant: form, color, texture, perceived movement, what is 'going on' psychologically
good form (F) indicates intact reasoning ability
-high F: defensive, constricted
-low f: high inner turmoil

iii) Content: subject matter (eg., animals or monsters)
human and human detail (H)
-high H: wide interest in people, high self-esteem, better prognosis for therapy
-low H: low level of empathy, withdrawal from interpersonal relationships, poor prognosis

iv) popular vs original
high P:
-experience anxiety related to fearr of making errors, cling to common way of perceiving things, convention, overconforming

low P: inpatient with SCZ's
-poor contact with reality
-if well organized = creative px

-scores are on a continuum


Interpretation:
1. movement
-M responses indicate turning inward towarrds the world of fantasy
-reflective, intelligent, creative, but awkward socially

2. color
-experience and expression of emotion
-extratensive: extraverted and emotional

3. animal and animal detail
-high animal: animal contents easiest to perceive --> predictable ways of responding
-low animal: more individualistic; see things that are less obvious

4. anatomy
high An: hypochonrdriasis and psychosomatic condition, intellectualizing defenses

botany, geography, nature: signifies passivity, immaturity

nature, landscape:
-signifies superior IQ in 'normals'
-in px populations: insecurity, helplessness

food and water: emotionally starved

water landscapes: alcoholics, dependent people with insecurity and helplessness
-sex and blood: poor impulse control

Dd: unusual detail: focus on details ratherr than situations
-high Dd: pull back from ambiguities of the whole blot; SCZ and obsessive compulsive

White space: negativism, oppositional tendencies, anger, hostility, acting out

MMPI-2:
-true/false personality inventory used both in psychiatric assessment and the description of normal personality

-designed to assess a wide range of concerns

-strict empirical keying approach followed for scale construction

-contains 4 validity scales, 10 standard clinical scales, and dozens of supplementary scales

-interpretation can follow 2 differing paths: by scale or configural
i) by scale: simplest possible approach
-scale by scale, examiner determines the validity of the test by inspecting 4 validity scales
-if test appears reasonably valid, examiner consults a relevant source book and proceeds scale by scale to produce a series of hypotheses

ii) configural: somewhat more complicated
-consists of classifying the profile as belonging to one or another loosely defined code type that has been studied extensively
-code types are usually defined by a combination of elevation and definition

shortcomings:
-intercorrelations among clinical scales are extremely high
-criterion-key approach is not well suited to development of independent measures


CPI
-true/false test designed to measure the dimensions of normal personality

-instrumental view of personality measurement

-test developers used an empirical methodology of criterion-keying to develop the majority of the scales

-suited for non-clinical, normal conditions for individuals aged 13+

-purpose of test is to measure and evaluate interpersonal behavior and social interaction within normal individuals

-seeks to predict how examinees behave in specified contexts and identify the ways that examinees are described by others

-particularly effective at identifying adolescents or adults who fllow a delinquent or criminal life style

-consists of 30 pics that portray a variety of subject matters and themes in black and white drawings and photo graphs; one card is blank

-originally designed to assess constructs such as needs and press, elements central to Murray's personality theory
-according to Murray, needs organize perception, thought, and action and energize behavior in teh direction of their satisfaction

-lack of standardized procedures is such that we should rightly regard the TAT as a method, not a test

-test of imagination, one form of intelligence

-interpretation is usually based on clincical-qualitative analysis of the story productions

-popular self report measure of anxiety, used in research and clinical settings

-purpose is to differentiate between the temporary condition of state anxiety and the more long standing quality of trait anxiety

-state anxiety is deined as a transitory emotional state or condition characterized by subjective feelings of tension and apprehension, and by activation of the autonomic nervous system

-trait anxiety refers to relatively stable individual differences in anxiety proneness

-range of scores for each scale is 20 to 80, with higher scores indicating greater anxiety

-test derived from factor analysis, useful in the evaluation of normal and abnormal personality

-trait based test of personality

-comprehensive, anatomically based system for describing all visually discernible facial movement

-brreaks down facial expressions into individual components of muscle movement, called Action Units (AUs)

-nonverbal behavior

-difficult to learn; requirers slow motion viewing of facial muscles

-very reliable if judges are well trained

-human faces speak same language around the globe: express the same feelings, reference to Darwin being 'right'

-facial leaks: when our true emotions are revealed even when we are wearing our public 'mask'

use of trait terms in the analysis of personality is based upon the fundamental lexical hypothesis: essential point of hypothesis is that trait terms have survived in language b/c they convey important information about our dealings with others

NEO-PI-R:
-measure of personality that evaluates the 5 factors of personality known as the big 5 (neurroticism, extraversion, openness to experrience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness; OCEAN)

NEO-PI-3:
-more readable and therefore better suited to students as young as 12

-careful, modest revision of og instrument that addresses problematic items that are difficult to comprehend for adolescents, young adults, and some adults

-retained og 5 factor structure and revealed better internal consistency and readability

-dimensions of religious experssion measurred by the Allport-Ross Religious Orientation scales

-intrinsically religious persons were thought to live their religion (eg., find meaning, direction, outlook)

-extrinsically religious persons were believed to use their religion (eg., to seek security, status, sociability)

-Allport reasoned that religious persons with intolerant attitudes possessed a predominantly extrinsic religious orientation

characterized by complexity, doubt, and tentativeness as ways of being religious

-measure of a third religious orientation known as Quest, developed in response to limitations of the Religious Orientation scales

-assesses the degree to which an individual's religion involves an open ended, responsive dialogue with existential questions raised by the contradictions and tragedies of life

3 components of Quest orientation:
i) readiness to face existential questions without reducing their complexity
ii) self-criticism and perception of religious doubts as positive
iii) openness to change

-measure of the motivational capacity to create a broad sense of personal meaning for one's life

-scale on the ASPIRES scale that measures 2 dimensions, spirtual transcendence and religious sentiments

-spirtual transcedence is furthere subdivided into 3 facets: prayer fulfillment, universality, and connectednss

-extensive, multiphasic memory test consisting of 9 subtests:
1) brief cognitive status exam: brief assessment for significant cognitive impairment

2) logical memory I: verbal recall of essential elements from brief stories read to examinee

3) verbal paired associations I: verbal recall for a list of 10-14 paired terms (eg., bicycle --arrow when only the first term is presented (eg., bicycle -- ?)

4) designs I: visual recall for speecific elements in a 4 3 4 puzzle grid exposed for 10 seconds; examineee must select small cards with the proper designs and plac them correctly within a blank 4 3 4 grid

5) visual reproduction I: visual reproduction (drawing) of 5 (easy to hard) simple geometric designs each eexposed for 10 seconds

6) spatial addition: visual spatial recall for locations of dots on two separate 4 3 4 grids, adding or subtracting the locations

7) symbol span: visual recall for symbols viewed briefly by selecting correct options in the proper order from a large array of symbols

8) logos I: visual recognitions for unique logos paired with factitous company names by selecting the correct logo from an array when only the company name is provided

9) names I: recall of names and relevant information about a person from facial images by selecting named prsons from a group picture

-requires the examinee to place pegs in holes with the left hand, right hand, and then both hands

-relative slowing in one hand suggests aa lesion in the opposite hemisphere, whereas bilateral slowing indicates diffuse or bilateral brain damage

-useful as an addition to comprehensive battery but should not be used in isolation for screening purposes

-design copying test of visual-motor integration

-examinee is instructed to copy one drawing at a time on a sheet
of blank paper. Erasures are discouraged. If needed, addi-
tional sheets of paper are provided. The examinee is told
“this is not a test of artistic ability, but try to copy the draw-
ings as accurately as possible. Work as fast or as slowly as
you wish” (Hutt, 1977). Use of a ruler or straight edge is
not permitted.

-use with adults: examiner is looking for signs of brain impairment

-use with children: primary purpose is to assess the level of developmental maturity

-scoring system: each reproduction is scored on a 5 point scale from 0 (no resemblance) to 4 (nearly perfect)

-standard score is called the visual motor integration (VMI) and is anchored to a mean of 100 and SD of 15

-strong support for validity of standardized cognitive ability tests in personnel selection

-tests of general cognitive ability and measures of specific cognitive skills have many applications in personneel selection, evaluation, and screening

-some studies have found that general mental ability as well as specific ability tests are valid predictors of job performance and training success

-a concern of using such tests for personnel selection is that these instruments may result in an adverse impact on minority groups

-most authorities in personnel psychology recognize that cognitive tests play an essential role in applicant selection; but they also affirm that cognitive tests provide max benefit and min adverse impact when combined with other approaches such as biodata

-weight of evidence seems to support conclusion that a general factor of intelligence rather than specific ability tests are usually better for predicting training and job success

-type of cognitive ability test

-really a group test of general mental ability

-50 multiple choice, 12 min. time limit, numerous parallel forms

- Item types on the Wonderlic are quite varied and include vocabulary, sentence rearrangement, arithmetic problem solving, logical induction, and interpretation
of proverbs

-really good reliability & validity

-points are added for subjects aaged 30 and up because of decrement of speed due to aging

concerns about test:
- in one study, one subject was unable to manage the format of the WPT, suggesting that severe visuospatial impairment can invalidate the test

-examinees whose native language is not English will be unfairly penalized on the test b/c Wonderlic is a speeded test

-a self administerd and self scored guide to exploring career options

-associated with Holland

-measures the 6 RIASEC vocational themes

-consists of dichotomous items (yes/no; like/dislike) in 4 sections:
i) activities
ii) compeetencies
iii) occupations
iv) self-estimates

-takes 30 to 50 min

-for 15 y.o and up

-Overall, the findings indicate that the SDS has moderate to high predictive efficiency, depending upon the age of the sample (hit rates go up with age), the length of the time interval (hit rates go down with time), and the specific category predicted (hit rates are better for Investigative and Social predictions)

-SII-R is the latest revision of the Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB)

-formulated to measure occupational interests

from ppt:
-successful people in an occupation have particular patterns of interests and personality traits
-these are stable patterns, different occupations can be discriminated based upon these characteristics
-test also influenced Holland's RIASEC model
-personal style scale
1) work style: high score people person, low score ideas, data, and things
2) learning environment: high academic environment, low applied environment
3) leadership style: comfort versus discomfort in leading others
4) risk-taking/adventure

-short term reliability is high
-1-2 week .90s
-age related when age 25 or more stablee patterns .80 for 10-20 years
-for adolescents mid .50s tested 15 years later
-early reports 2/3 chance in occupation predicted
-later research shows that the test is good for predicting which occupations you chose not to enter


from textbook:
in constructing test, 2 techniques used in measurement:
i) examine was asked to express liking or disliking for a large varied sample of occupations, educational disciplines, personality types, and recreational activities
ii) responses were empirically keyed for specific occupations

-theoretical foundation dervied from a typological, trait-oriented conception of personality

basic assumptions:
1) each occupation has a desirable pattern of interests and personality characteristics among its workers. the ideal pattern is represented by successful people in that occupation
2) each individual has relatively stable interests and personality traits. when such interests and traits match the desirable interest patterns of the occupation the individual has a high probability to enter that occupation and be more likely to succeed in it
3) it is highly possible to differentiate individuals in a given occupation from other-in-general in terms of the desirable patterns of interests and traits for that occupation

-test results are organized into 6 sections of general occupational theme scores: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, conventional

-each theme score pertains to a major interest area that describes both a work environment and a type of person

-results consist of a lengthy printout that is organized according to several themes

-scores are expressed as standard scores with a mean of 50 and SD of 10

-designed to help individuals make better career choicees by describing how their interests and skills match the occupational world

-primary target population is students and young adults who havee not entered the job market, but the test is also suitable for older workers who are considering a change in careers

-interest items include occupations, school subjects, and varied working activities that the examinee rates on a 6 point scale from strongly like to dislike

-skill items include a list of activities that the examinee rates on a 6 point scale from expert to none

-scored on several different kinds of scales: orientation scales, basic interest and skill scales, occupational scales, special scales, and procedural checks

-all scale scores arre reported as T scores, normed to a population average of 50, with an SD of 10

SII-R is the latest revised version of this test

-persons taking the test could be scored on separate keys for several dozen occupations, providing a series of scores in vocational guidance

-one of the most widely used tests of all time

from the SII-R flashcard, but is the same for the SVIB:
-formulated to measure occupational interests

-in constructing test, 2 techniques used in measurement:
i) examine was asked to express liking or disliking for a large varied sample of occupations, educational disciplines, personality types, and recreational activities
ii) responses were empirically keyed for specific occupations

-theoretical foundation dervied from a typological, trait-oriented conception of personality

basic assumptions:
1) each occupation has a desirable pattern of interests and personality characteristics among its workers. the ideal pattern is represented by successful people in that occupation
2) each individual has relatively stable interests and personality traits. when such interests and traits match the desirable interest patterns of the occupation the individual has a high probability to enter that occupation and be more likely to succeed in it
3) it is highly possible to differentiate individuals in a given occupation from other-in-general in terms of the desirable patterns of interests and traits for that occupation