psychfinal

Nerve cells (simple and complex) in the visual cortex that respond to specific features. 4 of these are MALE (Movements, Angles, Lines, Edges)

Essentially, the same as parallel processing of information but instead, it's related to neural stimuli.

ability to see objects in three dimensions although images that strike the retina are two-dimensional

Cues of depth that depend on both eyes.

Cues of depth available to each eye separately.

How we perceive objects as unchanging (having consistent shape, size, lightness and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.

Colored muscle disk with a hole in the center. This is the part that determines the color of your eyes, and changes shape to let in more or less light as required

Hole in the iris

Like the lens in a camera, it focuses light rays coming in onto the retina. Expands and contracts to focus on certain objects

Interneurons found in the retina, help relay stimuli from photoreceptors to ganglion cells

Neurons with axons that twine together to form the optic nerve

In the retina, there are three types of cones (3 types, 1 type sensitive to each of the colors red, green, and blue) respond in varying degrees to different color stimuli.

Colour is controlled by opponent systems: blue-yellow, red-green, white-black. E.g., some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red.

Thin surface on the inner part of the eye, contains photoreceptors (rods and cones) and transducts light hitting them into nervous impulses

Converting neural stimuli into neural impulses

Center of the retina, Cone Container, and by extension contains the most amount of photoreceptors, missing this is going to be a problem.

A sort of proto-lens, this clear outer layer is transparent and serves to focus light into the pupil

The eye's 'blind spot', there are no photoreceptors here. This is where the optic nerve is attached and subsequently relays information to the brain. The brain fills the resulting void in vision in subconciously

Lowered sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

The immediate responses of sensory receptors (e.g., eyes) to basic stimuli (e.g., light).

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

Concept of perceptual organization that states that the first step of perceiving something is to separate an object from it's background

Concept of perceptual organization that state sthat the next step in perceiving something is to organize an object into a form that is meaningful.

Seing one thing (the mouth movement for “ga”) while hearing another (the sound “ba”) can result in the perception of a new sound “da”.

The asshole who ran the Little Albert experiment, his work showed that emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly conditioned responses. Little Albert also showed how specific fears might be conditioned.

This guy outlined the law of effect, which essentially states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Desensitization to violence can occur after viewing violence repeatedly

Stimuli analysis begins with the sense receptors and works up to the level of the brain

Predicts how and when we will detect a faint stimulus amid background noise. Both intensity and psychological factors can affect our threshold.

Minimum amount of stimulation required to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

Also referred to as Just Noticeable Difference, or JND. Is the minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli 50% of time.

Weber’s law: To perceive a difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (not constant amount).

Messages presented below the level of conscious awareness.

A type of subliminal persuasion that is essentially pictures or words that are hidden or flashed quickly.

Another type of subliminal persuasion, these are essentially sounds or words that are too faint to be heard.

They're complete and utter horseshit, reliant on the placebo effect.

In this context, it's like priming from chapter 3, except with relationship to physical urges. As Strahan, Spencer, & Zanna demonstrated, in LABRATORY (i.e, controlled) CONDITIONS, subliminal priming works with an existing need or drive.

Mental tendencies and assumptions that affect (top-down) what we hear, taste, feel, and see.

A given stimulus may trigger different perceptions because of the immediate context.

The part of the electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye is capable of responding to.

A type of photoreceptor, sensitive to dim light. Located outside the fovea, and responsible for monochrome vision.

A type of photoreceptor sensitive to bright light. Located within the fovea and responsible for color vision.

Transduction

Distance from one peak to another

Distance from one peak of a wave to another

Distance from the highest point of a wave to the lowest point (peak to trough). Refers to volume in sound and brightness in light

Compressed and expanding air molecules.

20-20 000 hz

The rate (frequency) of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling its pitch to be sensed; explains low pitches (firing frequency of neurons cannot exceed 1000 times per sec)

Links the pitch heard with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated; explains high pitches (near the base of the cochlea).

4 separate senses (P2CH: Pain, Pressure, Cold, Heat)

The spinal cord contains neurological gates that either block pain or allow it to be sensed.

When molecules of a substance dissolved in our saliva binds to specific taste receptors that are located on taste buds.

If something tastes sweet: Energy Source
If something tastes salty: Sodium essential to physiological processes
If something tastes sour: Potentially toxic acid (eg. Lemon)
If something tastes bitter: Potential poisons
Umami (If something tastes meaty):Proteins to grow and repair tissues

Olfactory bulbs (analyzing smells) is part of the limbic system, which consists of amygdala (emotional processing) and the hippocampus (memory).

Molecules in the air interact with receptors in the nose

The effect of body experiences on J FAT (Judgements, Feelings, Attitudes, Thoughts)

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. We learn by making associations (conditioning).

Linking two events that occur close together. Instinctive.

Associating a response (our behavior) and its consequences. Voluntary.

• Unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically— triggers an unconditioned response.
• Unconditioned response (UR): naturally occurring response (salivation) to the unconditioned stimulus (meat).
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): an originally irrelevant neutral stimulus (tone) that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (meat), comes to trigger a conditioned response (salivation to tone).
• Conditioned response (CR): a learned response (salivation to tone) to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (tone).
• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that has no relevancy to the subject

The initial learning stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place.

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus (CS2).

1: Determine Unconditional Stimulus & Response (ex. food & salivation). 2: Determine Neutral Stimulus (ex. B E L L). 3: Pair the Neutral Stimulus with the Unconditional Stimulus (ring bell as food is delivered). 4: If all goes well, the Neutral Stimulus should now induce the Conditioned Response and has become the Conditioned Stimulus. 5 (Optional): Pair the Conditioned Stimulus with another Neutral Stimulus to turn the latter into another instance of the former.

Diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS).

Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

The tendency to have conditioned responses triggered by related stimuli.

The learned ability to only respond to a specific stimuli, preventing generalization.

Occurs when organisms associate actions with consequences. Notably, occurs of the organism's volition

AKA systematic desensitization. A behavioral treatment that uses relaxation training and a fear hierarchy to help people with phobias react calmly to anxiety-inducing stimulus.

Events that strengthen a response

Adding a desirable stimulus

Removing an aversive stimulus

Innately reinforcing or satisfies a biological need

Gaining reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer. Ex, AK = 1 taps, 1 taps = dopamine

Patterns that define how often desired responses will be reinforced.

Involves reinforcing a response every time it occurs

Involves reinforcing a response only part of the time

Reinforcing after a number of responses

Reinforcement arrives after a period of time

Any event that weakens the behavior it follows

Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that have survival value

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

We learn behaviour (e.g., aggression) by observing others and imitating them.

A process in which one person engages in behavior that is mimicked by another person, aka, monke see monke doo

Tendency to strengthen behavior for which others are being rewarded.

When we watch others doing or feeling something, neurons fire in patterns that would fire if we were doing the action or having the feeling ourselves. These neurons are referred to as mirror neurons, and they fire only to reflect the actions or feelings of others.

Recalling information (AKA remembering)

The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

The persistence of learning over time via encoding, storage and retrieval of information.

Forms memories related to emotions

Form implicit memories

Form explicit memories

Encoding (placing something into memory)
Storage (retention within short and long-term memory)
Retrieval (withdrawing knowledge from memory)

Much of the active processing occurs in short-term memory while some information goes straight to long-term memory w/o conscious attention. This memory is automatic memory

In Atkinson and Shiffrin's model, sensory memory is the first stage in forming explicit memories, and is an immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Activated memory portion that holds a few items briefly (e.g., a phone number while dialing) before the information is stored or forgotten.

Is essentially short-term memory, but now a lot more flexible. It's constantly in motion, processing and linking information, and can be affected by both genes and our environment.

Working memory's storage time is complete shit. It only lasts for around 15-20 seconds. Rehearsal is essentially the only way to get around working memory’s shitty storage times, and it’s the process of mentally repeating information to keep it in the person’s mind and short-term memory.

It's essentially studying.

Spacing studying out makes it more effective

Shallow processing: Structural. Example: Emphasize the physical structure of a word.
Intermediate processing: Phonemic. Example: Emphasize what words sound like
Deep Processing: SSR (Semantic, Self-Referential). Semantic example: Emphasize the meaning of the verbal input. Alternatively, Self-Referential: Emphasize relevance or usefulness to oneself.

We remember best when we relate the material to ourselves.

Handles storage of memories that are generally considered to be more instinctive, i.e, created by classical conditioning.

This stores both semantic (fact-related & general knowledge) and episodic (experienced events) memories.

Emotional arousal tends to produce stress hormones, which awaken the amygdala, which uses its stand to stimulate the memory formation area of the brain. This is why certain emotionally charged events tend to hang around for a long time.

The tendency to remember the first (primacy) and last (recency) items on a list.

The tendency to remember unique items in a list. Ex: (Long, Short, Cat, Arches, Dildo)

• Sometimes when you meet someone you are so focused on looking cool, you don’t even hear their name. -> Encoding Failure
• Sometimes we remember something initially, but we forget the next day – the memory trace ‘faded’. -> Storage Decay
• Sometimes we think we know something, yet can’t remember, and it magically pops into our mind later on. ->Retrieval Failure
• Sometimes we can’t remember our new password because all we can think of is the old one, or we can’t remember the old one because we just remember the new one. ->Interference (proactive and retroactive respectively)
• Sometimes we attempt to forget things (works for neutral, but not emotional information) ->Motivated Forgetting

Ultra-short-term memory for things you hear.

Ultra-short-term memory for things you see.

The misinformation effect occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.

Also known as source misattribution, it involves faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined.

The imagination effect occurs when repeatedly imagining fake events can create false memories.

Memory retrieval is retrieving memories held in storage via vast webs of associations. Retrieval cues are anchor points within the web that help retrieve information. (Remembering via mind map)

The encoding specificity principle suggests that retrieval will be best if the context at retrieval matches the context at encoding.

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.

The tendency to recall events consistent with one's current physical or mental state.

The Atkinson and Shiffrin model proposed that memory consisted of three stores: a sensory register (sensory memory), short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).