psychologyexam
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1
Define Psychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
2
Steps in the scientific process
1. Formulate hypothesis; 2. Design & collect data; 3. Analyze & conclude.
3
Descriptive research methods
Case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys; describe but cannot prove causation.
4
Correlational research
Measures relationship between variables; correlation does not equal causation.
5
Experimental research
Manipulates independent variable, measures dependent variable; allows causal inference.
6
APA Ethical Standards
Informed consent, confidentiality, beneficence, right to withdraw, debriefing after deception.
7
Divisions of Nervous System
CNS (brain + spinal cord); PNS (somatic, autonomic). Autonomic: sympathetic (fight/flight), parasympathetic (rest/digest).
8
Neuron structure
Dendrites (receive), Soma, Axon, Myelin sheath, Axon terminals (release NTs), Synapse.
9
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Muscle action, memory.
10
Dopamine
Reward, movement; imbalance linked to Parkinson’s and schizophrenia.
11
Serotonin
Mood, sleep, appetite; low levels linked to depression.
12
Norepinephrine
Arousal, alertness.
13
GABA
Main inhibitory neurotransmitter; calming effect.
14
Glutamate
Main excitatory neurotransmitter; learning and memory.
15
Endorphins
Pain relief, euphoria.
16
Brainstem
Medulla (vital functions), Pons (sleep), Reticular formation (arousal).
17
Cerebellum
Balance, coordination, procedural learning.
18
Limbic system
Amygdala (fear/emotion), Hippocampus (memory), Hypothalamus (homeostasis/drives).
19
Thalamus
Sensory relay center.
20
Basal ganglia
Movement and habits.
21
Frontal lobe
Executive function, motor control, Broca’s speech area.
22
Parietal lobe
Somatosensory processing, spatial awareness.
23
Temporal lobe
Hearing, Wernicke’s language comprehension.
24
Occipital lobe
Vision processing.
25
Neuroplasticity
Brain’s ability to change structure/function with experience across lifespan.
26
Sleep stages
NREM1 (light), NREM2 (spindles), NREM3 (deep/slow-wave), REM (dreams, atonia).
27
Functions of sleep
Restoration, memory consolidation, emotion regulation.
28
Insomnia
Difficulty falling or staying asleep.
29
Narcolepsy
Sudden REM attacks, cataplexy.
30
Sleep apnea
Breathing stops repeatedly during sleep.
31
Parasomnias
Night terrors, sleepwalking (NREM).
32
REM behavior disorder
Acting out dreams due to missing paralysis.
33
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
Learning by associating stimuli (US, UR, CS, CR).
34
Acquisition
Phase where CS–CR association is learned.
35
Extinction
CR decreases when CS presented without US.
36
Spontaneous recovery
Reappearance of CR after rest period.
37
Phobia
Irrational fear often acquired by conditioning.
38
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
Behavior influenced by consequences.
39
Reinforcement
Increases behavior (Positive = add pleasant; Negative = remove unpleasant).
40
Punishment
Decreases behavior (Positive = add unpleasant; Negative = remove pleasant).
41
Behavior modification
Use of reinforcement/shaping to change behavior.
42
Observational learning
Learning by watching others (Bandura).
43
Bobo doll experiment
Children imitated aggression after observing models rewarded.
44
Modeling
Imitating another’s behavior.
45
Vicarious reinforcement
Seeing a model rewarded increases imitation.
46
Vicarious punishment
Seeing a model punished decreases imitation.
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